Mangrove Development Research Articles

Identification of Key Actors in Mangroves Plantation using the MACTOR Tool: Study in DKI Jakarta

Considering the benefits of mangrove forest areas and their ability to support the success of sustainable development, this study aimed to determine the attitudes of stakeholders in the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (DKI Jakarta) toward the existence of mangrove areas in the North Coast of Jakarta. Surveys and data collection were conducted through focus group discussions and interviews. The results showed that the key actors in the development of mangrove areas in DKI Jakarta are the Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, the Department of Environmental Services of DKI Jakarta Province, the Government of DKI Jakarta Province, the Government of North Jakarta City, and the Regional House of Representatives of DKI Jakarta. In addition, other stakeholders, such as the developer, park bureau, regional development and ecotourism, were included as relay variables. In addition, the study identified the entrepreneurs, fishermen, farmers, and ponds as the dependent variables, while the industries, civil society, and warehousing as the independent variables. This study identified several options for the development of mangrove areas in DKI Jakarta, such as utilizing potential areas that have not been planted with mangroves for business area development, property development, national strategic project program, and mangrove plantation. The results of this study are expected to help policymakers develop policies for mangrove development in DKI Jakarta. Keywords: DKI Jakarta, MACTOR, mangrove forest, key actors

The coastal protection and blue carbon benefits of hybrid mangrove living shorelines

Hybrid living shorelines use a combination of engineered structures with natural ecosystems to achieve coastal protection and habitat restoration outcomes, with added co-benefits such as carbon sequestration. Rock fillets constructed along eroding estuarine banks are designed to accumulate sediment, establish mangroves, and stabilise the shoreline. There is, however, a lack of data to support whether rock fillets are achieving these goals. We used a chronosequence of rock fillets to determine their effect on mangrove development, bank stabilisation and carbon sequestration in four estuaries in New South Wales, Australia. Aboveground biomass and adult density increased with age of rock fillets, and mangrove structure was similar to a natural fringing mangrove after 15 years. The rock fillets accumulated sediment, which reduced the eroded estuary bank height, however, little effect of the fillets on bank slope was observed. Sediment carbon stocks were not different between rock fillets, eroding estuary banks and natural fringing mangroves. Rock fillet design had a significant effect on mangrove structure and coastal protection function, with greater wave transmission through lower rock fillets, suggesting design optimisation is needed. As the construction cost of the rock fillets was equal or less than traditional rock revetments, where suitable they present a more economic and environmentally sustainable solution to estuarine erosion management.

Mangrove conservation efforts with the ecotourism development in the Cengkrong Mangrove Ecotourism, Trenggalek District, East Java, Indonesia

Abstract. Kurniawati B, Sulistyaningrum N, Nugroho GD, Sunarto, Kusumaningrum L, Rahawarin YY, Flores AB, Yap CK, Setyawan AD. 2022. Mangrove conservation efforts with the ecotourism development in the Cengkrong Mangrove Ecotourism, Trenggalek District, East Java, Indonesia. Intl J Bonorowo Wetlands 12: 75-81. For mangrove conservation efforts, it is necessary to develop ecotourism so that people can also take advantage of the existence of mangrove forests. Analysis of the role mangrove ecosystem is carried out to develop a mangrove conservation strategy and the concept of sustainable development. This research examined conservation and ecotourism efforts by the community around the Cengkrong Mangrove Ecotourism and social perceptions of ecotourism based on mangrove development. The research was conducted in June 2022 at Mangrove Cengkrong Ecotourism, Karanggandu Village, Watulimo Sub-district, Trenggalek District, East Java, Indonesia, by conducting interviews with 50 respondents. Data was collected through field observations and interviews with ecotourism administrators and residents around the location. The results of this study indicate that the conservation efforts carried out are protecting, conserving, and utilizing mangroves by seeding, planting, managing, and monitoring mangroves. The POKMASWAS or the Community Monitoring Group manages the Cengkrong Mangrove Ecotourism area. However, the utilization of mangrove forest resources that have economic value by the community around the Cengkrong Mangrove Ecotourism area is still low because it is only limited to the cultivation of crabs, shells, making mangrove syrup, cakes and chips. In addition, the place is quite crowded with tourists. Indeed, area development still lacks preservation, utilization, and conservation for the management, surrounding communities, and tourists. Limited facilities and infrastructure are a challenge for the sustainable development of mangrove ecotourism. In addition, increasing community involvement and collaboration with institutions and the government in mangrove management must also be improved so that all the surrounding communities can also benefit. With the increasing economic benefits of mangrove ecotourism management, the community around the mangrove forest will participate in maintaining and preserving the mangrove forest ecosystem.

Spatial Distribution and Ecological Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Sediment of a Tropical Mangrove Wetland on Hainan Island, China

Mangroves have a high ecological service value and play an important role in achieving carbon neutrality. However, mangrove wetland soil quality is constantly being affected, and the ecological services provided are gradually declining due to the threat of various pollutants, especially heavy metal pollution. Exploring the sources and ecological risks of heavy metals in mangrove sediments will be helpful in improving mangrove protection. In 2020, sediments were collected from terrestrial and aquatic areas of Dongzhai Harbor mangrove wetland in Hainan, China, and were analyzed for the concentrations of nine heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Ni, Zn, Co). The results showed that there were obvious spatial distributions of heavy metals in sediments. The high concentrations of heavy metals occurred largely in terrestrial areas and in 0–20 cm of the sediment surface layer. Correlation analysis and cluster analysis indicated that As mainly originated from ships and aquaculture in the harbor waters, Cd and Hg from agriculture, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn and Co from the weathering of parent rocks, and Pb from soot emitted from metal smelters and automobile exhaust. The individual potential ecological risk index (Eir) indicated that contaminating elements were mainly Cd and Hg. The potential ecological risk index (RI) and multiple probable effect concentrations quality (mPECQs) indicated that the areas with high heavy metal concentration and the 0–20 cm range of sediment surface layer were more susceptible to heavy metal contamination. Although there were no obvious ecological risks in the area, these results could facilitate the understanding of the distribution of heavy metal pollution in mangroves and provide information to achieve sustainable development of mangroves.

Vegetation Index and Mangrove Forest Utilization through Ecotourism Development in Dodola and Guraping of North Maluku Province

This study analyzes the vegetation index and mangrove forest utilization through ecotourism development in Guraping and Dodola Island of North Maluku Province. This research uses a remote sensing approach through Landsat 8 Operational Land Imagery (OLI) from 2013 and 2021, calculated based on the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) algorithms. This study indicates that ecotourism development can preserve the mangrove forest and generate economic and social benefits for the local community. Otherwise, the vegetation index in mangrove areas from 2013 to 2021 needs to be considered seriously as the primary data to optimize the management of tourism destinations. In the case of Dodola Island, the increased number of vegetation in 2017 experienced significant changes and threatened the sustainability of mangrove ecotourism. Thus, the mangrove monitoring needs to be optimized to anticipate the unsustainability of mangroves, which determines the sustainability of tourism in North Maluku Province. This study offers an idea to involve the local community in conserving the mangrove area through a controlled and sustainable rehabilitation program instead of economic activity purposes. The findings indicate that the existing condition of the Guraping mangrove forest in 2021 is classified as moderate compared with mangrove ecotourism in Dodola Island with sparse criteria based on the Decree of the Minister of State for the Environment in 2004. This research suggests adopting the community-based ecotourism mangrove development through collaborative advantages of all tourism stakeholders.

An integrated approach of GIS-AHP-MCE methods for the selection of suitable sites for the shrimp farming and mangrove development- A case study of the coastal area of Vietnam

<p>This study was conducted to identify suitable sites for shrimp farming combined with the mangrove development (SFM) in the coastal area of central Vietnam. An integrated approach using GIS with weighted Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) by Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was adopted for the selection of sites. In this study, fifteen sub-criteria belonging to three main criteria (geographical conditions, water quality and infrastructure availability) were selected as evaluation parameters in the GIS model. The study indicated that the geographical factors are the most important for the SFM development with 0.44 weight. However, the availability of such areas is limited. Results of the integrated study indicated that SFM area for development is highly suitable: 1127.82 ha (15.57%), moderately suitable: 2056.87 ha (28.4%), marginally suitable: 2835.52 ha (39.16 %) and not suitable: 3204.36 ha (17.0 %) in the Hau basin, Vietnam. In this study, we have also used GIS-AHP-MCE methods for developing organic shrimp farming and mangrove rehabilitation.</p>

Ecological development of mangrove plantations in the Bangladesh Delta

Afforestation is a process used in recovering the global mangrove cover. Succession or development in mangrove communities during mangrove afforestation has rarely been described yet is important for understanding the potential of afforestation in creating diverse and functional mangroves. Since 1966, the Government of Bangladesh has created nearly 280 km2 of plantation mangroves (7.5% of the extent of the Sundarbans mangrove forest and 0.21% of the global mangroves extent) on the Delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers, located east of the Sundarbans mangroves. Here, we investigated the development of these plantation mangroves, assessing their community structure and species richness over a 40-year chronosequence in comparison to natural mangroves in the same region. Tree communities in the plantations reached a maximum mean aboveground biomass (AGB) of ∼157 ± 13 Mg dry weight ha−1, achieving equivalence in tree aboveground biomass and tree density (255 ± 2 individuals ha−1) to natural mangroves by 20 and 39 years respectively. Our dataset from plantations aged between 10 and 42 years indicated that structural complexity (Ic) was higher in older plantations than in younger plantations. We found that the tree community structure of older mangrove plantations was more diverse in the eastern region of the delta compared to the central and western regions, and the landward plantations were more diverse than the plantations fringing the oceans. One of the originally planted mangrove species, Sonneratia apetala, was dominant in these plantations. However, we recorded 8 mangrove tree species from 5 genera in the plantations, despite only two species (S. apetala and Avicennia officinalis) being planted. Our data indicated that while the tree structure of the established mangrove plantations was similar to natural mangroves within 42 years, equivalent species richness may not be reached for more than 40 years. Therefore, adoption of management to enhance natural successional or development processes in afforestation programs, for example by planting a diverse mix of species, could improve the effectiveness of afforestation in conserving biodiversity.

Tangled Roots and Murky Waters: Piecing Together Panama’s Mangrove Policy Puzzle

Mangrove forest policies are often characterized by their fragmented nature, as multiple sectors, disciplines, and institutional structures interact to affect mangrove conservation and management. This study analyzes mangrove forest policies in Panama, a country known for its rich mangrove coverage and, conversely, its high rates of mangrove loss, urban expansion, and coastal development. To complement the policy analysis, key informant interviews with national policy actors are used to gather insights on policy implementation challenges and potential multi-actor collaboration opportunities. Results suggest that despite the development of multiple policies targeting wetlands and conferring a high conservation status to mangroves in Panama, mangrove protection is challenged by competing governmental agendas and policy implementation gaps. Efforts to strengthen mangrove conservation and initiate participatory management processes were also found to conflict with institutional structures that struggle to include local communities and foster collective action.

Linkage Between Mangrove Seedling Colonization, Sediment Traits, and Nitrogen Input

Mangroves around the world settle along coasts and estuaries, where they usually encounter aquaculture effluent that causes eutrophication and regulates the nitrogen cycle in their ecosystems. Moreover, the physical–chemical features of sediment in mangrove habitats might be altered by coastal wind, waves, and currents more frequently under the condition of increasing extreme climatic events. These events affect the process of colonization/regeneration of mangroves. To study how exogenous nitrogen input and sediment texture affect root system establishment of mangrove propagules and the early growth of seedlings, in turn, we set up a mesocosm experiment to explore the morphological and physiological responses of the root system of two mangroves, i.e., Kandelia obovata and Sonneratia apetala. We found that the root morphological features of mangrove seedlings mostly showed significant differences across the sediment texture treatment; K. obovata seedlings were more intensively influenced than S. apetala seedlings. It could be ascribed that the roots of K. obovata seedlings were more sensitive to sediment texture than S. apetala seedlings. Conversely, the treatment of exogenous nitrogen input showed a slighter even non-significant influence on the root features of mangrove seedlings. These results suggest that the seedlings of S. apetala and K. obovata performed similarly. In estuaries and coasts featuring eutrophication and various sediment textures, the conservation and restoration of mangroves should consider these conditions to ensure the sustainable development of mangroves.

Implications of Coastal Conditions and Sea-Level Rise on Mangrove Vulnerability: A Bio-Morphodynamic Modeling Study.

Mangrove forests are valuable coastal ecosystems that have been shown to persist on muddy intertidal flats through bio‐morphodynamic feedbacks. However, the role of coastal conditions on mangrove behavior remains uncertain. This study conducts numerical experiments to systematically explore the effects of tidal range, small wind waves, sediment supply and coastal slope on mangrove development under sea‐level rise (SLR). Our results show that mangroves in micro‐tidal conditions are more vulnerable because of the gentler coastal equilibrium slope and the limited ability to capture sediment, which leads to substantial mangrove landward displacement even under slow SLR. Macro‐tidal conditions with large sediment supply promote accretion along the profile and platform formation, reducing mangrove vulnerability for slow and medium SLR, but still cause rapid mangrove retreat under fast SLR. Small wind waves promote sediment accretion, and exert an extra bed shear stress that confines the mangrove forest to higher elevations with more favorable inundation regimes, offsetting SLR impacts. These processes also have important implications for the development of new landward habitats under SLR. In particular, our experiments show that landward habitat can be created even with limited sediment supply and thus without complete infilling of the available accommodation space. Nevertheless, new accommodation space may be filled over time with sediment originating from erosion of the lower coastal profile. Consistent with field data, model simulations indicate that sediment accretion within the forest can accelerate under SLR, but the timing and magnitude of accretion depend non‐linearly on coastal conditions and distance from the mangrove seaward edge.

Land assessment for Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. development in mangrove forest areas of coastal Nghe An Province

Assessment of potential mangrove land suitability for mangrove tree species is a multi-objective analysis and decision-making problem in coastal mangrove development planning. In this study, GIS technology is applied to assess ecological adaptation for Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. There are 16 indicators of 4 criteria used: (i) Type of mangrove land, (ii) Substrate and soil texture, (ii) Tidal depth, and (iv) Status of mangroves and mangroves. There are 127 land units evaluated for Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl., of which 77 land units are highly adaptive (198.5 ha, accounting for 19.5%), 20 of land units are at the medium adaptability (139.7 ha, 27.7%), 0 land units are less adapted and the rest are unadapted (377.6 ha, 52.7%). The result is a scientific basis for the planning of mangrove forest development in the coastal area of Nghe An Province.

Effects of shrimp pond effluent on functional traits and functional diversity of mangroves in Zhangjiang Estuary

In recent years, the scale of shrimp ponds has rapidly increased adjacent to mangrove forests. Discharge of shrimp pond effluent has led to degradation of the surrounding environment and reduction of biodiversity in the estuary. But it remains poorly understood how shrimp pond effluent affects functional traits and functional diversity of mangroves. We sampled roots, stems and leaves of Kandelia obovata and other mangrove plants, as well as sediments and pore water from shrimp pond effluent polluted area (P) and clean area (control area, C) in Zhangjiang Estuary in southeast coast of China. Twenty plant functional traits and six functional diversity indices were analyzed to explore the effects of shrimp pond effluent on individual plants and mangrove communities. The results showed that the discharge of shrimp pond effluent significantly affected the nutrient content in soils and pore water, for example, sediment NH4+ and NO3− concentration increased from 0.26 ± 0.06 to 0.77 ± 0.29 mg/g and from 0.05 ± 0.03 to 0.16 ± 0.05 mg/g, respectively, when comparing the C and P site. Furthermore, some mangrove plant functional traits such as plant height, diameter at breast height, canopy thickness and specific leaf area were significantly increased by the effluent discharge. Functional diversity in the polluted area reduced as a whole compared to the control area. In particular, ammonium and nitrate nitrogen input is the main reason to induce the changes of plant functional traits and functional diversity. Besides, the community structure changed from functional differentiation to functional convergence after shrimp pond effluent discharge. In addition, the long-term shrimp pond effluent discharge may lead to the ecological strategy shift of K. obovata, while different organs may adopt different ways of nutrient uptake and growth strategies in the face of effluent disturbance. In conclusion, pollution from shrimp pond does affect the functional traits of mangrove plants and functional diversity of mangrove community. These results provide strong evidence to assess the impact of effluent discharges on mangrove plants and provide theoretical basis for conservation and sustainable development of mangroves.

Cambios ambientales en los últimos 1800 años en el manglar de Neguanje, Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona, Caribe colombiano

We reconstructed changes in vegetation and climate conditions during the last 1800 years in a column of sediment 4 m deep (Playa Pozo sector, Neguanje Bay, Tayrona National Natural Park, department of Magdalena, Colombia). We characterized the main components (mineral elements, organic matter), micro-stratigraphy (types of organic matter), humidity variations (%), organic and inorganic carbon, and palynological associations (specifically pollen grains), and counted spores of fungi, algae, ferns, plant debris, and insects. The palynological associations (dominant elements) were defined and related to the current types of vegetation. The definition of the dominant groups in the palynological spectrum and their relationship with the current vegetation types was associated with the stratigraphic conditions of the sediments to detect the changes that occurred during this period. In the reconstruction of the paleoenvironments, we determined the relationship between the defined palynological associations and the stratigraphy of the sediments, the humidity (precipitation), and the covered area. For this purpose, we used the temperature calibration curves of the last 2000 years proposed by various authors. We did not recover enough palynomorphs at the base of the column between 400 and 380 cm deep (2000-1693 years BP), but organic components of marine origin predominated in the sediment, a condition associated with a warm period in the central and eastern Colombian Caribbean coastal environments. In zone I (1693-1294 years B.P.), the mangrove was consolidated and in zone II (1294-1078 years A.P.), it expanded with the vegetation of flooded areas. In zone III (1078-654 years B.P.), we detected the occurrence of the greatest mangrove development, especially by the dominant species Rhizophora mangle. In zones IV and V (654 years A.P.-present), the mangrove cover decreased. This period was less warm than the previous ones, similar to the prevailing conditions in the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and its surroundings.

PENGEMBANGAN KEMITRAAN PADA EKOSISTEM MANGROVE SEBAGAI EKOWISATA BERBASIS EKONOMI DAN KEARIFAN LOKAL DI DESA TELUK PAMBANG

Teluk Pambang Village is located on the coast of Bengkalis Island, the area is surrounded by rivers and the beach has an extensive mangrove ecosystem. Mangrove ecosystems have ecological, social and economic functions as ecotourism. Although the village government realizes that the area has the potential to be developed into ecotourism, it has not been able to manage and develop it as ecotourism. The purpose of this activity is to make Teluk Pambang village a local content-based mangrove ecotourism as a sustainable community economic empowerment. The method used is to provide assistance and training followed by direct practice with KUKERTA students to the targeted groups. This activity is a continuation of the previous year's program. Activities begin with planning, implementation and problem solving. The results of this activity can be grouped into physical forms in the form of building track roads, photo/selfie spots, and relaxing places in the mangrove area. Continuing to develop partnerships in its management with educational stakeholders to be directed to environmental conservation based on local wisdom, so that one of the targets involved is elementary schools by providing training in developing a curriculum for loving the environment based on local wisdom. Provide training on processing coconut into chips to the PKK group, and conduct digital marketing training, as a strategy to market MSME products. In conclusion, the service activities were carried out successfully in the development of mangroves and other potential natural resources as ecotourism in improving the creative economy-based economy.existing mangrove ecosystem by developing it as a creative economy-based mangrove ecotourism

Cloud Computing and Machine Learning for Analyzing Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Mangrove Ecosystems in the Grand Saloum (Senegal and Gambia)

The Grand Saloum is characterized by a vast coastal plain cut by a dense hydrographic network and populated by mangrove plant formations. It is an ecosystem of capital importance in view of its ecological, socio-economic and environmental role. However, the Saloum delta remains a complex and very sensitive environment, particularly in the context of climate change. It therefore deserves special attention for better conservation. The objective of this study is to analyze the spatiotemporal dynamics of its mangrove ecosystems in relation to the variability of rainfall. The methodology is based on the exploitation of Landsat satellite images time series using Machine Learning technic from the Google Earth Engine platform to make the diachronic maps of mangrove ecosystems and analyze its relationship with rainfall. The results showed an expansion of mangrove areas in the Gambian part where the surface increased from 9 381 ha in 1988 to 11611 ha in 2020 which represents an overall growth of 23,8%. In the Senegalese part, mangrove surface increased from 52 616 ha to 62 300 between 1988 and 2020 which is +18% growth. The detection of changes showed an important development of mangrove along the Saloum during the first decade and a strong growth in the Gambian part from the 2000s. The vegetation index showed a regeneration of the mangrove between 2000 and 2020. The temporal dynamics of the mangrove is strongly correlated with the rainfall variability.

KARAKTERISTIK EKOLOGI MANGROVE DI KAWASAN SILVOAKUAKULTUR

The development of mangrove by silvoaquaculture approach is an integrating between mangrove conservation and economic improvement of coastal communities by aquaculture production. The study aims to determine the ecological characteristics of mangroves in silvoaquaculture areas. The research locations include Karangsong, Brondong, and Pabean Ilir in Indramayu Regency and use a survey technique using the quadrant transect method. The silvoaquaculture pond area in Indramayu Regency has five types of mangroves, namely Avicennia marina, Avicennia alba, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, and Rhizophora stylosa. Rhizophora mucronata is the dominant mangrove species. The best mangrove ecological conditions are found in empang parit and komplangan ponds, so based on the ecological characteristics of mangroves, it is recommended that the development of silvoaquaculture ponds use empang parit or komplangan type of pond.

MANGROVE MONITORING USING NORMALIZED DIFFERENCE VEGETATION INDEX (NDVI): CASE STUDY IN NORTH HALMAHERA, INDONESIA

Community-based ecotourism is an appropriate approach which is effectively preserved mangrove sustainability. As an effort to identify the priority areas of mangrove development, mangrove density levels need to be analyzed. The distribution of mangroves with the lowest average density value needs to be prioritized as a preservation and conservation strategy through community-based ecotourism concept. This article aims to identify the distribution of mangroves using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) model in North Halmahera Regency, Indonesia. Also, discuss the sustainable livelihoods' perspective. This study adopted a mixed-method. Data processing is divided into two stages: first stage, mapping the distribution of mangroves based on density levels; second stage, triangulation. Landsat 8 operational land imager (OLI) in 2013 and 2021 were used as primary data to get the NDVI value, and categorized mangrove density level in Pilawang Cape, Kumo Island, Kakara Island, Maiti Island, and Tagalaya Island. The findings show that Pilawang Cape has the lowest NDVI value. The average NDVI value in 2021 is 0.22 which can be categorized as a rare mangrove forest according to the mangrove standard damage criteria. Thus, Mangrove area in Pilawang Cape needs to be prioritized as a preservation and conservation strategy through community-based ecotourism concept.

Geospatial Simulation Model of Sustainable Mangrove Development Scenarios for the Years 2030 and 2050 in Marismas Nacionales, Mexico

Anthropogenic activities influence the loss of mangroves, increase natural phenomena such as hurricanes, tropical storms, and El Niño, and consequently increase concentrations of greenhouse gases such as CO2, promoting climate change. There are strategies to reduce emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, the Sustainable Development Goals, and the General Law on Climate Change to counteract these conditions. Therefore, this research aims to generate an integral simulation model of sustainable mangrove development scenarios for 2030 and 2050 through mitigation strategies, using geospatial techniques, multi-criteria evaluation, and generating a future surface demand model. The Marismas Nacionales study area is a mangrove ecosystem and an important carbon sink. The simulation model determined that the mangrove area in 2030 will be 77,555 hectares, with an estimated absorption of 358.95 Gg CO2 e (equivalent). By 2050 there will be 86,476 ha, absorbing 400.24 Gg CO2 e. This increase will be in disturbed mangrove areas and other wetlands. The sustainable simulation model and the surface demand model can be applied in any study area to increase, protect, and conserve mangroves to benefit the social, economic, and environmental sectors.

Mapping Mangrove Opportunities with Open Access Data: A Case Study for Bangladesh

Mangroves protect coastal areas against hazards like storms or cyclones by attenuating waves and currents, and by trapping floating debris during extreme events. Bangladesh is a very vulnerable country to floods and cyclones, and part of its coastal system is thus being upgraded to a higher safety standard. These upgrades include embankment reinforcement and mangrove afforestation schemes seawards of the embankments. To further strengthen the implementation of combined green–grey infrastructure in future programs, identifying potential mangrove development sites near the polder systems is a necessary first step. We thus developed a tool to systematically identify mangrove sites throughout the coastal area based on open access data. This method identifies potential sites for mangrove development based on their distance from existing mangrove patches and suggests the required technique to implement the vegetation depending on the rate of coastline change. Our method showed that approximately 600 km of the coastal stretches placed seawards of embankments are within 10 km of existing mangroves, and could thus be potential sites for mangrove establishment. Out of those 600 km, we identified 140 km of coastline where the landwards polders are particularly vulnerable to flooding. The sites with highest restoration potential and priority are located in Galachipa, Hatiya, Bhola, Manpura, Khangona, and Boro Moheshkhali. More detailed data collection and local assessments are recommended prior to executing mangrove afforestation schemes. Nevertheless, this method could serve as a useful systematic tool for feasibility studies that identify mangrove opportunities in data-scarce areas and help to prioritize data collection at the sites of highest interest.

The Perceptions of Local Community's About Diversity of Mangrove Ecological Potential for Ecotourism Development in the South Coast of Lombok Island, Indonesia

The utilization of the coastal environment is still dominated by-products and has not yet switched to ecosystem service products, such as the use of mangrove ecosystems as ecotourism. This study aims to assess the local community's perception of the potential diversity that becomes an object for the community's economy. The research method uses surveys, observations, and interviews for social data, while the ecological data use transect and quadratic methods. Furthermore, data analysis used descriptive statistics. In addition, ecological data were analyzed using density (Ki), relative frequency (FR), diversity (H') of mangroves, and ecological indexes (Diversity (H'), Evenness (E), Dominance (D)). The results of the study found six mangrove species, ten echinoderm species, and thirteen bivalves. The highest diversity index (H') was in Poton Bako 1.80 and the Evenness index ranged from 0.80 – 0.98 with a stable category. Biota relative dominance the association index of echinoderms is high 0.79–0.11. Meanwhile, the bivalves Dominance index of 0.03-0.11 was low. In addition, local community's perception of mangrove conservation for ecotourism, 63% of the community stated, 7% is not possible and 30% is not. The feasible value of mangrove development is 62%, 17% is not feasible and 21% does not know. The priority developed by Eduwisata is 48%, Bird Watching is 20% and Tracking is 32%. The conclusion is that the choice of using mangrove ecosystem services can be developed as a policy in overcoming economic threats and the vulnerability of marine biota as well as solutions for local communities.