Language Policy Development Research Articles

Educational Reforms and Language Planning Quandary in Algeria: An Illustration with Arabization

SummaryThe paper aims to present a critical review of language policy development in Algeria since its independence (1962) to present time. It takes the policy of Arabization, an important turning point in Algerian history that was troubled with serious problems, as an example of language planning in the country. Data was gathered from policy documents, laws, and newspaper articles. It was then coded into themes before it was analysed employing a documentary research method. To provide a methodical discussion, the first part of the paper explores language policy and planning in Algeria. The second part discusses the impact of Arabization on the country’s current state of policy development in light of the debates over the national educational reforms of 2003. The third part highlights the quandary that language planners face during the processes of language planning and policy making. Lastly, the paper concludes with an evaluation of the process of language policy development in the country. The paper argues that in order to foster sustainable multilingualism and achieve effective educational reforms, a keener recognition of Algerian linguistic diversity by the government is imperative.

Policy analysis as "text" in higher education: Challenging South Africa's "use of official languages act": A case-based approach

The literature on policy science demonstrates that deeper insight into the complexities surrounding notions of the policy process, and of policy formulation and policy-making, can be drawn from policy analysis. As such, some scholars who have taken note of this fact have paid serious attention to policy analysis. As a starting point in this paper, I deliberate on the assorted definitions of policy offered by various scholars in the field of policy science. Furthermore, the paper engages with the notion of policy analysis from the perspective of policy text. Regarding the methodological position, this paper makes use of a case study in respect of the Use of Official Languages Act 12 of 2012, with specific reference to the South African Qualification Authority’s language policy development and formulation process as a unit of analysis. From a conceptual and analytical perspective, the paper draws on the notion of presupposition as a viable tool for analysing policy text. Finally, in this paper I propose a textual cycle which could account for stages of policy text/word development, and thus, an account of pertinent research questions is provided.

Ethno-Language Issue as a Source of Separatism and Instability in Ukraine

The article analyzes the impact of ethno-linguistic policy on the separatism and political instability in Ukraine. The article examines the current provisions of the legislation of Ukraine on the development of language policy, as well as the provisions of the latest Law on the status of the state language in Ukraine.Ukraine has severalspecific features from the linguistic point of view, they are: bilingualism, uneven distribution of Russian and Ukrainian languages on the territory of the country and in different sectors of the social sphere, as well as ethno-linguistic, social and socio-cultural polarization of the Western, Central and South-Eastern parts of the country.
 
 The Ukrainian language was recognized as the state languagein Ukraine in 1989. This preceded the signing of the Declaration on the State Independence of Ukraine in 1991. From that moment on, the Ukrainian language is considered a symbol of the new Ukraine. Raising the status of the Ukrainian language has become one of the central issues in the process of building an independent state. 
 
 The UN Security Council discussion in July 2019 on the language policy in Ukraine showed the world community's concern over the problem of ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens and national minorities in Ukraine in connection with the adoption of the Law on the legal status of the state Ukrainian language and its use in education and public life.
 
 The analysis focuses on the trends in the development of language policy, which is the source of aggravation of social processes in the form of separatism and destabilization of modern Ukraine and attempts of its modern political regime to finally complete the reorientation from Russia to the West at the legislative language level.

Language policy in multi-level systems: A historical institutionalist analysis

Efforts are underway to develop a stronger political science perspective regarding the practice of language policy to establish language policy as a distinct field of public policy studies. The article’s original theoretical contribution is to develop a framework, grounded in historical institutionalism, to analyse the multi-level institutional factors that influence language policy choices relating to regional or minority languages within European multi-level states. The framework is tested by applying it to analyse the multi-level factors that condition language policy decisions regarding the Welsh language, and through further investigating the framework’s significance and robustness to analyse language policy trajectories in two contrasting European cases. Overall, the article makes the case for the strengths and adaptability of the framework in producing convincing explanations of the multi-level dimensions of language policy development in different institutionalised contexts and calls for greater investigation of its ability to analyse other regional and minority languages in Europe.

A Comparative Study of Language Policies for Minorities in Italy vs. Macedonia

This article analyses language rights in the larger language context between Italy, a country who is well established in language minority rights sphere in European Union and Republic of Macedonia. Language diversity is an on-going process impacted by migration and globalization. In this regard, this paper analyses the language policy development of the same language but in two different context. The first scenario is Arbreshi/Albaninan language spoken in Southern Italy after their immigration from Albania in the 15th century, and the Albanian language spoken in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Although it is the same language, the dynamics of globalization, absence of economic opportunities, local and the international political context and the status of a minority language in both countries have stirred the same language in different directions in Italy and Macedonia. The study investigates the possible scenarios that these languages could be considered endangered as a result of assimilation in Southern Italy or massive emigration which the case in Macedonia is. The biggest challenges seem to be the disability to fight in the aggressive economic race and are lacking vitality and policy mechanisms to survive. The study investigates how languages are overpowered because they do not present an economic factor in their community and as a consequence they first lose their rank in the local community and consequently they lose their chance for revitalization The paper also analyses the current legal status of these languages in both aforementioned countries and possible scenarios of being endangered languages as a result of urbanization and economic competition in this globalized reality.

Critical LPP and the intersection of class, race and language policy and practice in twenty first century Catalonia

Language policy and planning (LPP) has always drawn on research and scholarship in education as well as the social sciences in general (in particular sociology). Social theory has also figured as an important source of ideas and concepts, and critical LPP has arisen as a distinct strand of inquiry since the 1980s (Tollefson, in Planning language, planning inequality: language policy in the community. Longman, London, 1991; Tollefson (ed) Language policies in education: critical issues. Routledge, London, 2013). More recently, critical LPP researchers have begun to turn to political economy, as a source discipline, and neoliberalism, as a baseline concept, in the study of LPP-related phenomena and practices in a range of contexts (Ricento 2015; Tollefson & Perez-Milans 2018). This paper examines how a critical political economy-oriented approach may be applied in a specific context, that of Catalonia, where most would agree that there has been a relatively successful recovery of a minority language situated in a larger nation-state structure traditionally dominated by a monolingual (Spanish) polity. This critical approach explores, on the one hand, how political economy—which examines the power relations that mutually constitute the production, distribution, and consumption of resources and the class relations that emerge within these processes—may be brought to bear on issues arising in the ongoing development of LPP in Catalonia. In addition, this critical approach is attentive to issues around race and ethnicity which inevitably arise in societies experiencing high levels of immigration, as has been the case in Catalonia over the past 25 years. This paper aims to bring these two strands together, examining how two key matters of interest in political economy today– inequality and class—intersect with race and ethnicity in the ongoing development of language policy in Catalonia, focussing specifically on the Barcelona metropolitan area. And further to this, it aims to understand how this intersectionality is, at the same time, intersected by the nexus of a Catalan national, cultural and linguistic identity emerging from the aforementioned relatively successful recovery of Catalan over the past several decades.

New speakers of new and old languages: an investigation into the gap between language practices and language policy

This paper explores the intersection of new speakers in conditions of globalisation led mobility and it investigates the implications the phenomena may have for language policy making. It first describes two historical phases in language policy development that are closely related to a sociolinguistics of stability. In this, it criticises how present-day language policy is attached to specific time and space constraints whose focus is a by now outdated concept of language and of speaker as its prescriptive objects—thus leading institutional language policies to not being ‘in sync’ with contemporary new speakers’ socio- and geo-political movements and developments. This proposition is illustrated in two case studies, both located in the Netherlands and dealing with the language practices and connected policies of two types of new speakers. The first case deals with the experiences of asylum seekers being engaged with ‘techno-literacies’. That is asylum seekers being part of ICT assisted classes for civic integration through the learning of Dutch (new speakers of a new language, learning through new means of language learning). The second case deals with Chinese students who are fully proficient in Dutch, attending language heritage classes for learning Mandarin through book based lessons (new speakers of an old language, learning through old means of language learning). In both cases, the observed language practices and meta-pragmatic judgements of the individual language users elect them as initiators of bottom-up sociolinguistic change that, while offering grassroots solutions for local challenges, also plays a role as local evidence for informing future top-down language policy development.

Definition and design: aligning language interventions in education

The management of language diversity and the mastery of language required by educational institutions affect those institutions from early education through to higher education. This paper will deal with three dimensions of how language is managed and developed in education. The first is the design of interventions for educational environments at policy level, as well as for instruction and for language development. The second dimension concerns defining the kind of competence needed to handle the language demands of an academic institution. The interventions can be productive if reference is made throughout to the conditions or design principles that language policies and language courses must meet. The third dimension concerns meeting an important requirement: the alignment of the interventions of language policy, language assessment and language development (and the language instruction that supports the latter). The paper will use a widely used definition of academic literacy to illustrate how this supports the design of language assessments and language courses. It is an additional critical condition for effective intervention design that assessments and language instruction (and development) work together in harmony. Misalignment among them is likely to affect the original intention of the designs negatively. Similarly, if those interventions are not supported by institutional policies, the plan will have little effect. The principle of alignment is an important, but not the only design condition. The paper will therefore conclude with an overview of a comprehensive framework of design principles for language artefacts that may serve to enhance their responsible design.

Development and Prospect of Language Policy in Japanese Inbound Tourism Policy: Awareness of Progress in Multilingualism

Development and Prospect of Language Policy in Japanese Inbound Tourism Policy: Awareness of Progress in Multilingualism

THE INFLUENCE OF ENGLISH MEDIUM INSTRUCTION ON TEACHER IDENTITY

For a content teacher who is a non-native English speaker, the transition from giving instruction in one’s own native language to teaching in English is potentially challenging. This paper examines the impact of English-Medium Instruction (EMI) on the professional identity of academic staff based on the research conducted at South Ural State University. Authors analyze the Russian context of EMI introduction into tertiary education, define the concepts: “identity”, “professional identity”, “teacher identity” and adapt the identity components (professional, personal, institutional) offered by Kling Soren to SUSU faculty. Teacher cognitions of their own authority, expertise and identity are captured using qualitative methods including observation and interview. By following a cohort of teachers through the initial stage of EMI training and examining their self-perceptions before training, the study examines the initial state of this identity and the impact of the EMI training on it. The results show that though the SUSU faculty perceive the process of EMI introduction at SUSU as inevitable one, they realize the opportunities and the needs for professional development, both in the field EMI strategies and English language proficiency with professional expertise being threatened. Results of this research can be used as for development of language policy of higher education institution in the field of foreign-language education, and for development of programs of professional development in the field of EMI.

Language Policy of Ukraine as a Source of Ethno-Political Destabilization

The article is devoted to the study of the influence of the language policy on political stability in Ukraine. The article examines the current provisions of the Ukrainian legislation related to the development of language policy, as well as the provisions of the latest draft laws on the status of languages in Ukraine. The authors have analyzed recent trends in the development of language policy, which are a source of destabilization in modern Ukraine.The problem of ethno-political stability becomes one of the key problems for the modern Ukrainian state. This issue was on a par with socio-economic issues and foreign policy interaction. Its scientific analysis is necessary to determine the impact of the state language policy implemented in Ukraine on the development of all regions of the country, which have significant differences in their national composition, history and traditions. In this context, the study of this issue has not only theoretical but also practical importance.One of the draft laws regulating the language sphere assumes that foreign citizens who intend to obtain Ukrainian citizenship will have to take exams in the Ukrainian language. The required level of proficiency will be determined by the national Commission on the standards of the Ukrainian language. It will be created if the bill is passed by Parliament. This Commission will be entrusted with the task of determining the necessary level of proficiency in the state language for the persons willing to occupy certain positions.The bill provides for the introduction of mandatory use of the state Ukrainian language by various authorities. It provides for the use of the Ukrainian language not only for documentation, but also for pre-election campaigns carried out at the expense of the state budget. The main trends that occur in the language sphere of Ukraine prove that they are part of the processes that occur in all the former republics of the USSR. They include the revival of interest in the national language and national culture, the desire to expand the social functions of the national language in different spheres of communication in each of the newly independent states and constitute a part of the process of statehood assertion.

Multilingualism and policy making in Greater China: ideological and implementational spaces

In this opening commentary, we draw on Ruiz’s (NABE J 8:15–34, 1984) metaphorical representations of language to outline the ideological and implementational spaces for language policy making in Greater China. In particular, we highlight how the ‘resource’ orientation allows different stakeholders to negotiate the development of language policies that may help preserve linguistic diversity within a tradition of seeing linguistic unity as foundational to national unity. To illustrate this, we present an analysis of media texts on a major language policy initiative in mainland China and examine relevant discussions in other Chinese contexts. We contend that this ‘resource’ orientation has a significant role in defining the implementational space for language policy making in Greater China, despite the critique that may be levelled at it.

Language planning and language policy in Sardinia

AbstractIn 1999, the Italian Republic acknowledged the status of Sardinian as a minority language. Since then the Autonomous Region of Sardinia has been committed to the development of language policies for Sardinian. A regional law approved in 1997 adopted the aim of promoting the different varieties of the languages spoken in Sardinia. The goals changed substantially when the Region adopted for its language planning activities the ideas of a cultural-political movement known asMovimentu Linguisticu Sardu, and appointed an activist Director of the Bureau of the Sardinian Language. This article presents and discusses the key steps in the last decade of language planning: the proposals, their development and consequences.

Counter-hegemony: grassroots use of the Internet to save dialects in China

ABSTRACTThe Internet is used to create a grassroots counter-hegemony force. However, how individuals can effect changes to the development of language policies, especially in contexts such as China, is understudied. This study analyses three different forms of online activities – self-generating content, interaction, and discussion – to demonstrate how the Internet empowers individuals and creates a virtual public sphere for public participation and increased public awareness. It found that the Internet enabled citizens to participate in the manufacturing of online counter-hegemony discourse. These democratised contents and the process of participation provide grassroots bargaining power against the hegemony discourse. The study also discusses the challenges and limitations of the role of individuals in changing language policies in countries where citizens have limited political and civic rights.

Accommodating multiculturalism and biculturalism in Aotearoa New Zealand: Implications for language education

The field of language education in Aotearoa New Zealand, as elsewhere, has developed significantly since its early and almost exclusive focus on the acquisition of English literacy in schools. As the field has expanded, so too has the range of language education sectors addressed and the theoretical approaches and understandings employed in relation to language and literacy education. Both developments have resulted in a more coordinated literacy education policy '” exemplified to date most clearly in the New Zealand Literacy Taskforce '” and a more situated, less monolithic understanding of the widely different literacies available to learners. Despite these developments, however, one area still remains noticeably under-theorised and marginalized in relation to the ongoing development of language and literacy education policy in Aotearoa New Zealand '” the place of second language learners within it. This paper explores this lacuna and the potential policy implications of addressing and integrating first and second language educational concerns within an evolving national literacy education policy. This has particular implications for the further development of bilingual education '” both for Maori and, possibly, other minority groups '” and for the related possibilities of multicultural education. It also requires a wider and clearer recognition of minority language education rights, as developed within both international law and political theory, in order to apply these rights appropriately to an Aotearoa New Zealand context which is currently witnessing rapid and extensive demographic (and linguistic) change.

University language policies in Estonia and Sweden: exploring the interplay between English and national languages in higher education

ABSTRACTAs universities seek to become more international, their need to engage with a wider range of languages, particularly English, seems more prominent. At the same time, universities are also regarded by many stakeholders as key institutions to preserve a given national language and culture. This apparent tension makes universities a fruitful ground to explore relevant issues of language policymaking. This paper analyses language policies in higher education in two northern European countries, Sweden and Estonia. Applying qualitative content analytical tools, we tackle the following questions: (1) what major themes emerge from the analysis of institutional language policy documents in Estonia and Sweden? and (2) how is English perceived in relation to other languages? Our analysis shows that, despite their different historical and sociopolitical trajectories, universities in the two countries tend to adopt similar stances vis-à-vis their language policy developments. There also exist, however, different nuances in approaching the language question, which we interpret as being the result of the particular cultural backgrounds of each country.

Language Policy and Human Development

This article explores how language policy affects the socioeconomic development of nation states through two channels: the individual’s exposure to and (in reference to an individual’s mother tongue) linguistic distance from the official language. In a cross-country framework the article first establishes a robust and sizeable negative relationship between an official language that is distant from the local indigenous languages and proxies for human capital and health. To establish this relationship as causal, we instrument language choice with a measure of geographic distance from the origins of writing. Next, using individual level data from India and a set of 11 African countries, we provide microempirical support on the two channels—distance from and exposure to the official language—and their implications for educational, health, occupational and wealth outcomes. Finally, we suggest policy implications based on our findings.

Edukacja tubylcza a procesy rewitalizacji etnicznej autochtonicznych mniejszości – wybrane modele i egzemplifikacje

The article deals with the issue of the relation between indigenous education and mainstream schooling in processes of autochtonous minorities ethnic revitalization. Particular emphasis was placed on reconstructing educational practices of indigenous schooling that is implemented toward indigenous minorities. An attempt was made at examining selected models of indigenous education concerning the relationship between schooling, language policy, teachers education and revitalization and development of languages, cultures, traditions and ethnic identity in contemporary multicultural societies.

Trends and issues in language policy and language education in Crimea

ABSTRACTThis work identifies and discusses developments in language policy and language education in Crimea since the peninsula’s incorporation into the Russian Federation in March 2014. Working on the assumption that post-Soviet reforms and changes in language and education policies cannot be understood outside their historical context, the article starts by briefly outlining some of the defining features of the historical and sociolinguistic situation of Crimea until March 2014. It then presents the changing linguistic situation of the peninsula since its accession into Russia and discusses present developments in light of the broader context of post-Soviet language ideologies, policies and practices. It suggests that the new Crimean authorities are following a double strategy: the imposition of monolingual educational and linguistic policies, accompanied by largely symbolic concessions to the demands of local ethnic communities.

Русский язык в мультикультурном пространстве Казахстана: государственная политика и общественные настроения

The article examines issues associated with the functioning of the Russian language in Kazakhstan. Considering the fact that this country is multinational, the issue of intercultural communication is always relevant. There is a need to address intercultural communication as part of the development of state language policy. It is noted that there are four stages in the development of language policy in Kazakhstan. Having analysed the stages of language policy formation, the author concludes that the Russian language in Kazakhstan has held a different position depending on the geopolitical, social, economic, migration and demographic conditions prevailing in Kazakhstan. The current linguistic and cultural situation is characterised by the development of Kazakh-Russian bilingualism, which manifests itself in various spheres of communication. The introduction of multilingual education in national schools makes it possible to draw certain conclusions and identify the positive and negative consequences of the project. The author argues that a language policy meant to protect the interests of speakers of different languages living in a multi-ethnic state may help solve linguistic contradictions.