Development Of House Flies Research Articles

Stable Fly, House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae), and Other Nuisance Fly Development in Poultry Litter Associated with Horticultural Crop Production

Poultry litter usage in horticultural crop production is a contributor to nuisance fly populations, in particular stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans L.) and house flies (Musca domestica L.). Extrapolation of adult emergence data suggests that approximately 1.5 million house flies and 0.2 million stable flies are emerging on average from every hectare of poultry litter applied as a preplant fertilizer for vegetable production in Perth, Western Australia. To a lesser extent, sideband applications to established crops may allow for the development of 0.5 million house flies and 45,000 stable flies per hectare. However, up to 1 million house flies, 0.45 million lesser house flies, Fannia cannicularis L., and 11,000 stable flies per hectare may be produced from surface dressings of poultry litter associated with turf production. Other nuisance flies present in poultry litter included the false stable fly, Muscina stabulans (Fallén), bluebodied blowfly, Calliphora dubia Hardy, black carrion fly, Hydrotaea rostrata Robineau-Desvoidy, Australian sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina Wiedemann, and flesh flies (Sarcophagidae). Only house flies developed in poultry litter for the first 4 d after application in the field. Stable flies were not present in poultry litter until 4-7 d after application, and were the only fly species developing in litter > 9 d after application.

Development of house flies (Diptera:Muscidae) in sand containing varying amounts of manure solids and moisture.

House flies, Musca domestica L., developed in 200 cm3 of coarse sand containing just 1 ml (0.47%) of dairy manure solids and 10 ml (4.74%) of moisture. At these levels, development was slow (21.5 d from 1st instar to adult), adult survival was low (7.5%), but successful development did occur. At higher manure and moisture levels, rates of development and survival were similar to those reported previously. All soil samples collected from a feedlot dairy contained higher levels of manure solids than the highest level tested in the laboratory. The implications for fly control in soil/manure mixtures and the need for additional studies are discussed.

Developmental patterns in the antioxidant defenses of the housefly, Musca domestica

The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione S-transferases, GSSG reductase, thiol transferases, gamma glutamylcysteine synthetase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and the concentrations of H2O2 and reduced and oxidized glutathione were determined in the various developmental stages of houseflies. Housefly development was correlated with a progressive increase of cellular oxidizing equivalents and a loss of cellular reducing capacity. The loss of reducing equivalents appeared to result from a decrease in the activity of enzymes involved in glutathione and NADPH synthesis and a concomitant increase in glutathione-oxidizing enzymes. Relatively little change was observed in SOD activity during housefly development; however, the electrophoretic pattern of MnSOD varied in a manner specific to developmental stage. A striking increase in H2O2 concentration occurred prior to pupation possibly due to changes in substrate catabolism. These results support the hypothesis that the cellular environment becomes progressively more oxidizing during development.

House Fly and Lesser Fly Control Utilizing the Black Soldier Fly in Manure Management Systems for Caged Laying Hens

Four manure treatments were utilized in an experimental caged layer house. One excluded soldier flies, Hermetia illucens (L.), and other dipterous larvae chemically; one was a check; one initially favored the soldier fly with a single addition of 2.5 cm water; and one allowed periodic development of house fly, Musca domestica L., and lesser house fly, Fannia canicularis (L.), larvae by monthly removal of all manure and soldier fly larvae. Soldier fly larvae were demonstrated to cause significant reductions in house fly and lesser house fly populations and manure moisture. Manure accumulation was also reduced.

The dietary effects of 20-hydroxyecdysone on the development of housefly

The ingestion of 20-hydroxyecdysone adversely affected the growth and development of housefly larvae ( Musca domestica) reared axenically on two synthetic diets. In a casein diet, this hormone was toxic causing 84% mortality at a concentration of 100 ppm. In an amino acid diet, the mortality was 65% at 100 ppm but the rate of larval development was greater than the controls and some puparia showing prothetely were produced for all concentrations tested. The different effects can be explained in terms of differences in the absorption and/or catabolism of 20-hydroxyecdysone in the two diets.

Biochemical characterisation of the development ofMusca domestica

Quantitative changes in DNA, RNA and protein during the entire developmental period—including embryogenesis, larval and pupal stages — in the house-fly were determined. The development of housefly from egg to adult takes around 8·5 days at 35 ± 1° C. During the course of embryonic development toal RNA and protein decreased. On the other hand, total DNA increased and registered peak value in 4 hr old eggs. The calorific content of the developing eggs showed a decrease from 5649 cal/g dry weight to 5361 cal/g dry weight indicating the utility of energy reserves during embryonic development. Matured larvae registered high calorific content (6260 cal/g dry weight).

Insect growth regulators: development of house flies in feces of bovines fed TH 6040 in mineral blocks and reduction in field populations by surface treatments with TH 6040 or a mixture of stirofos and dichlorvoa at larval breeding areas.

Development of Musca domestica L. was inhibited in the feces of cattle that consumed mineral blocks which contained 0.1 and 0.05% of the insect growth regulator Thompson-Hayward 6040 [N-(4-chlorophenyl)-N′-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl) urea]. The application of TH 6040 or a mixture of 21.4% stirofos and 5.3% dichlorvos (Ravap®) as area treatments to larval breeding sites at a swine feedlot (0.05 and 0.075% concn, respectively) and at a waste water treatment plant (0,05 and 0.15% concn, respectively) inhibited adult emergence throughout the fly breeding season.

Effect of gamma radiation on DDT resistance and DDT-dehydrochlorinase levels in Musca domestica.

During DDT-resistant house fly development, the amount of DDT-dehydrochlorinase increased sharply during the larval stages, decreased markedly at pupation, and increased again upon adult eclosion. None was detected in eggs or in day-old larvae. The protein synthesis inhibitors puromycin, actinomycin D, and chloramphenicol reduced the levels of α-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase and DDT-dehydrochlorinase in teneral adult flies. In 4–5-day-old larvae exposed when less than 24 h old to 6, 12, 18, or 24 krad of gamma radiation, DDT-dehydrochlorinase specific activity decreased as the radiation dose increased. After 1 additional day of development, DDT-dehydrochlorinase activity decreased in both irradiated and nonirradiated larvae but the decrease was less in irradiated larvae exposed to greater doses of radiation. DDT-dehydrochlorinase specific activity in adults irradiated as 5 to 6-day-old pupae with the aforementioned doses of gamma radiation was unaffected by radiation. However, gamma-irradiated adults showed slight increased resistance to topically applied DDT.

Juvenile hormone mimics as feed additives for control of the face fly and house fly.

Three juvenile hormone mimics, methoprene (as Altosid®); (E) -4-[(6,7-epoxy-3,7-dimethyl-2-nonenyl)oxy]-1,2-(methylenedioxy)benzene (as Hoffman-La Roche Ro 20-3600); and (E) -6,7-epoxy-1-( p -ethylphenoxy)-3,7-dimethyl-2-octene (as Stauffer R-20458) were mixed with fresh cow manure and seeded with larvae of the house fly, Musca domestica L., and the face fly, Musca autumnalis De Geer. Methoprene at 1 ppm completely inhibited development of face flies, and at 10 ppm markedly inhibited the development of house flies. Ro 20-3600 at 10 ppm inhibited the development of face flies but had no effect on house flies, even at 100 ppm. R-20458 at 100 ppm had no effect on face flies or house flies. Also, methoprene fed to cattle at a rate of 1 mg/kg body weight gave essentially complete control of face flies, and a rate of 2.5 mg/kg body weight gave significant control of house flies. Ro 20-3600 fed at a rate of 10 mg/kg body weight gave complete control of face flies but had no effect on house flies.

Soluble and particle-bound trehalase in extracts from larvae, pupae, and adults of Musca domestica

Trehalase activity was measured in tissue homogenates and extracts from the larval, pupal, and adult stages of Musca domestica, the common housefly. The tissue homogenates were separated into soluble and particlebound fractions by differential centrifugation, and the trehalase activities of the fractions were measured. The trehalase specific activity (units of enzyme/mg protein) in homogenates from adult insects was nearly twenty times greater than activity in homogenates of larvae. Homogenates of pupae showed intermediate values. In both the adults and larvae the enzyme activity was approximately evenly distributed between soluble and particle-bound forms, whereas 95 per cent of the trehalase activity in the extract of pupae was in the soluble fraction. The results show that the form and amount of trehalase present during housefly development is adjusted to accommodate the enzyme's physiological rôle of splitting trehalose to glucose for the insect's use as an energy source.

Effect of polyene antibiotics on the growth and development of the house fly.

Polyene antibiotics, known binding and sequestering agents of sterols required in the diet of Musca domestica L., were evaluated for their ability to disrupt growth and development of larval house flies. Of 12 antibiotics tested, only filipin demonstrated marked inhibition of growth and larvicidal activity; it was ineffective as a chemosterilant in the adult diet at 100 ppm. The chemical level of filipin necessary for control of the larvae was greater than 100× that required for the standard larvicides, diazinon and trichlorfon, to be effective.

Inhibition by 5-fluoroorotic acid of the ovarian development of house flies, Musca domestica.

Inhibition by 5-fluoroorotic acid of the ovarian development of house flies, Musca domestica.

Effect of Tepa and Metepa on Ovarian Development of House Flies

Tepa and metepa were administered in the food of adult female house flies, Musca domestica L., at 1.0% concentration. Ovarian development was inhibited in some flies between the 24th and 48th hr. In other flies ovarian development was not inhibited and the oöcytesin the 1st egg chambers, though smaller than normal in flies treated with tepa, were able to develop normally. The inhibited oöcytes in the 1st egg chambers of the tepa- and treated ovaries began degenerating at 48 and 72 hr, respectively. The developed eggs of the tepa-treated ovaries began degenerating at 120 hr, whereas the developed eggs of the metepa-treated ovaries did not show any sign of degeneration. Degeneration of inhibited oöcytes and noninhibited eggs became progressively more severe. The cells of the 2d egg chambers were either normal or in a degenerative condition in correlation with the condition of the cells in the 1st egg chambers. The 3d egg chambers became visible in some ovarioles at 96 hr in the tepa- treated ovaries and at 120 hr in the metepa-treated ovaries. None of the ftlies survived beyond 192 hours.

2-Imidazolidinone as an Insect Growth Inhibitor and Chemosterilant

2-Imidazolidinone has been found to possess some unique properties affecting insect growth and development. Drosophila melanogaster Meigen larvae develop normally in media treated with 50 to 100 ppm of 2-imidazolidinone, but adults fail to emerge from the pupae. This compound affected growth and development of the immature stages of the house fly, Musca domustica. L.; the large milkweed bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus (Dallas); the corn earworm, Heliothis zea (Boddie); the mosquito Anopheles albimanus Wiedemann; the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.); and the western spotted cucumber beetle, Diabrotica undecimpunctata Mannerheim. 2-Imidazolidinone was found also to be a house fly sterilant when flies were fed either liquid or solid treated bait. Unlike the house fly, both sexes of the large milkweed bug are sterilized when nymphs are fed solutions of 2-imidazolidinone for several days. However, it was ineffective as a chemosterilant when insects were exposed to treated surfaces. 2-Imidazolidinone inhibits house fly development in the excrement of poultry fed 500 ppm either in the drinking water or in the solid ration. At this level. 12 ppm of the toxicant were found in the egg; it was also distributed uniformly in various tissues.

The Effect of Apholate on the Ovarian Development of House Flies

Apholate (2,2,4,4,6,6-hexahydro-2,2,4,4,6,6-hexakis(1-aziridinyl)-1,3,5,2,4,6-triazatriphosphorine) when administered in the food of adult female house flies ( Musca domestica L.) at a 1.0% concentration, for a period up to 240 hours, inhibited but did not eliminate ovarian development. Its greatest effect was noticeable at 72 hours after eclosion on the nurse cells of the first and second egg chambers. The chromatin was clumped in irregular masses and the nuclei had bizarre shapes. The oocytes in the first egg chambers matured but all of the cells in the second egg chambers remained undeveloped during the entire 240 hours. The germarium was also affected, since the third egg chamber did not become visible until 168 to 192 hours after eclosion instead of 96 hours as in normal flies.

Toxicity to Face Fly and House Fly Larvae of Feces from Insecticide-Fed Cattle

Co-Ral® ( O -(3-chloro-4-methylumbelliferone) O,O -diethyl phosphorothioate), Bayer 22408 ( O,O -diethyl O -naphthalimido phosphorothioate), and ronnel were administered to Holstein heifers in the grain ration for 5 consecutive days to determine whether the treated animals would produce droppings that were toxic to the larvae of face flies ( Musca autumnalis DeGeer) and house flies ( Musca domestica L.). Tests in which the feces from the treated animals were infested with newly hatched larvae showed that Co-Ral and Bayer 22408 completely inhibited the development of face fly larvae at dosages of 1.0 and 0.5 milligrams per kilogram of animal weight. House fly larvae failed to survive at the 1.0 mg./kg. dosages of both chemicals. The 0.5 mg./kg. dosages were highly effective, but did not completely stop house fly development. Feces from animals fed ronnel at 5.0 mg./kg. gave complete kill of face fly and house fly larvae. Ronnel at 2.5 mg./kg. was effective against the larvae of face flies, but not house flies.

Tests with Compounds Affecting House Fly Metabolism

Two hundred compounds were tested for ability to sterilize or otherwise interfere with the normal development of house flies ( Musca domestica L.). Seventy-nine had some deleterious effect when added to the larval medium, but only 10 affected development when combined with the adult food. Amethopterin (Methotrexate®; N-[p {(2,4-diamino-6-pteridylmethyl]methyl-amino} benzoyl) glutamic acid), the most active compound, caused sterility in the females but not in the males, in a single feeding when given in the initial meal, and reduced subsequent oviposition when given in a later meal Oviposition of house flies maintained in a room with a choice of treated and untreated food was only 2% as high as that of flies given only untreated food.

Feed Additives for Control of House Fly Larvae in Livestock Feces1

There was no reduction in the numbers of house flies (Musca domestica L.) completing development from egg to adult in feces from a steer fed up to 100 gm./day of Polybor 3, (containing 98% of disodium octoborate tetrahydrate (Na2B8O13-4H20)). When mixed directly with cattle manure, Polybor 3 was an effective larvicide; a possible explanation for relatively higher rates in a steer ration not controlling larvae in feces is discussed. Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner spores containing 25 billion/gm. mixed directly with cattle feces at rates of 0, 50, 100, 200, and 300 mg./kg. and inoculated with 100 house fly eggs resulted in an average of 43, 41, 9, 5, and 0 adult house flies completing development, respectively. Feeding 20 gm. B. thuringiensis/day to a steer prevented development of house flies in manure, and 0.125 gm. B. thuringiensis/kg. ration greatly reduced the number of adult flies emerging from hen droppings. The presence of aureomycin did not decrease the effectiveness of this pathogen.