Historical Development Of Science Research Articles

ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ РЕПРЕЗЕНТАЦИИ КАК СПОСОБ ПРЕОДОЛЕНИЯ ДИСКРЕТНОСТИ ИСТОРИЧЕСКОГО СОЗНАНИЯ

The article deals with the actual problem of overcoming the discreteness of historical consciousness, which arose as a result of the acquisition of traumatic experience of experiencing negative historical phenomena. The author notes that the historical conditions in which the acquisition and experience of traumatic experience occurs, as a result of which the discreteness of historical consciousness is formed and manifested, are carried out during periods of serious socio-cultural transformations and shocks at the individual and collective level. The author notes that such shocks are events associated with various social disasters, military conflicts, natural and man-made disasters, etc.). The collective trauma acquired in these conditions affects the process of formation of discrete historical consciousness, qualitative and quantitative transformation of the social structure, influencing the sphere of ideology. As a result of the research, the author came to the conclusion that the specificity of historical representations is associated with the level of development of historical consciousness of society; with the historical and socio-cultural context in which they are formed; with the level of development of historical science and scientific communications aimed at the formation of historical consciousness. At the conceptual and everyday level, different ways of historical representations are used, with the help of which it is possible to understand what kind of experience a society or an individual is experiencing. The author states that historical representations differ in their insufficiency and riskiness.

What contents from the history of chemistry are estimated as useful for chemistry lessons – attitudes of chemistry teachers

ABSTRACT Background In the previous decades many research papers and educational documents have emphasized the importance of the application of history of science in the science education of students. Consequently, chemistry teachers are expected to be familiar with the historical development of science and capable of incorporating historical contents in teaching practice in order to support the development of students’ conceptual understanding and the understanding of the nature of science. Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate chemistry teachers’ attitudes towards the impact of history of chemistry in promoting students’ understanding of chemistry and the inclusion of topics from history of chemistry in regular teaching practice. Sample The sample comprised 272 chemistry teachers working in primary schools (for students aged 7 to 14), who teach chemistry in the seventh and eighth grade (students aged 13 to 14). Design and methods A questionnaire which consisted of three parts and contained 11 questions altogether was used for data collection. Results The most common topics from history of chemistry in the respondents’ classes were how some discoveries had been made, most often the structure of atoms and the periodic table of elements. Two-thirds of the teachers estimated such contents as useful and interesting, but over half of the respondents assessed the contribution of the historical context to the understanding of chemical concepts as moderate. Conclusion Based on the teachers’ answers it can be concluded that they recognize some potential benefits of the implementation of history of chemistry in teaching chemistry, but their answers also indicate that they need some additional support in the application of historical topics in their regular teaching practice.

МУЗЕЙ АРХЕОЛОГИИ И ЭТНОГРАФИИ ИЭИ УФИЦ РАН: СОЗДАНИЕ И РАЗВИТИЕ

The subject of the research is the experience of creating and functioning of the Museum of Archeology and Ethnography of the R.G. Kuzeev Institute of Ethnological Research of the UFRC RAS (MAE IEI UFRC RAS), which is an integral part of the academic museum network formed in the second half of the twentieth century. For a long time, the museum has been exhibiting objects that demonstrate the results of archaeological and ethnographic research in the field of studying the history and culture of the peoples of the Southern Urals. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief overview of the creation of the museum, to consider its development to date; to analyze the main directions of work and the results of museum activities, as well as to determine the specifics and prospects for the development of museum activities of the IEI of the UFRC RAS. In the course of the research, the names of scientists and specialists who participated in the formation of collections are named, information about the acquisition of museum funds and state accounting of objects is provided, the features of exposition activity are highlighted, the most interesting exhibitions and current work in this direction are noted, the implementation of excursion activities is shown, the results of project work are highlighted and the most significant projects are described. Attention is also paid to the results of research activities based on archaeological and ethnographic funds, since this work makes a significant contribution to the development of historical science.

Dari Sejarah ke Studi Hadis: Memahami Metode Sejarah Kritis dan Penanggalan Hadis di Barat

From History to Hadith Studies: Understanding Critical Historical Methods and Dating Hadith in the West This article describes the historical research method implemented by hadith scholars in the West. Since Ignaz Goldziher developed Aloys Sprenger’s idea, scholars of hadith in the West have always based their studies on critical historical methods to formulate various methods of dating hadith as a source of historical reconstruction in the early periods of Islamic development. The reality of hadith studies in the West based on research methodology in the historical discipline has not yet received the attention of Muslim scholars, not least in Indonesia, which provides a critical review of the results of studies in the West. Instead of proposing a critique from a compatible paradigm, the arguments put forward are often based on assumptions that originate in the tradition of traditional hadith criticism. This article examines literature sources using a qualitative method and a narrative approach. Starting from the description of the formation and development of historical science in Europe, this article shows how the historical method was used by scholars of Islamic studies in the West to formulate four types of methods of dating hadith. The application of one or more of these methods in the study of hadith involves considering its suitability with the sources' characteristics. However, Muslim scholars’ involvement in the discourse of hadith studies in the West undoubtedly departs from the paradigm, theory, and method of historical research

Research on the Ideological and Political Education of College Physics under the Background of “Emerging Engineering Education”

Under the background of “Emerging engineering Education”, college physics, as a basic course of science and engineering, has a wide range of courses and a large number of students. Therefore, the content of ideological and political education in college physics teaching has a wide audience, and the material of physics development history is very rich. This paper expounds the infiltration of ideological and political education in College Physics teaching from three aspects: The history of scientific development, philosophy of science and sociology of science. Realize the whole process and all- round education during college physics teaching. In the process of imparting knowledge, we should emphasize the education of the mainstream value, scientific literacy, ideals and beliefs, and conduct virtue education.

Formation and development of historical science in the Belarusian State University (1920–50s)

The article examines the century long way of formation and development of historical science at the Belarusian State University. It is concluded that from the very beginning of the university’s activity, the most important directions of historical research were formed in it. A special place was occupied by Belarusian studies, which became the sphere of professional activity of both historians and archaeologists, ethnographers, source researchers, historiographers, and archivists. At the same time, Russian and Slavic history was also deeply studied and since the 1920s. Belarusian antiquity, media studies, novistics et cetera has originated. It is noted that such a wide range of studies was largely determined by the fact that the university had to train specialists in the relevant fields of knowledge. Historians of BSU initiated the creation of separate research societies and institutions, including the Institute of Belarusian Culture and the Belarusian Academy of Sciences. Highlighted the stages of development of university historical science, which were characterised by their distinctive features and were determined by socio-political factors. The current state of the historical science of BSU is outlined.

Historian and Teacher: to the 70th Anniversary of Lyudmila G. Romanova

The article is devoted to the life of the teacher, candidate of historical sciences, associate professor Lyudmila G. Romanova. 2021 is anniversary year – Lyudmila G. Romanova will be 70-year-old in October. Some facts from the biography of Lyudmila G. are written in the article, the brief information of scientific and pedagogical activities, the list of main articles attached. The article shows the organizational activities of Romanova at the faculty Institute of social political systems and Department of History, her pedagogical talent. The article shows Lyudmila G. Romanova's scientific interests with public demands of Chita city and Transbaikal region.Romanova made a significant contribution to the development of historical science and general educational disciplines of Chita Polytechnical Institute (Transbaikal state university). Keywords: Chita Polytechnical Institute, Historical Faculty of ISU, teacher, scientist, Transbaikal region

РОЛЬ ВИДАВНИЦТВА «ЕЛМ» У СИСТЕМІ ВИДАНЬ НАУКОВИХ КНИГ У 40–50-Х РР. ХХ СТОЛІТТЯ

Наукова діяльність виникає з практичної діяльності людей та в міру свого розвитку починає передувати досвіду у формуванні нових об’єктів. Сьогодні наука стала універсальним об’єктом багатьох сфер діяльності. Це пов’язано з тією особливою роллю, яку наука відіграє в сучасній цивілізації. Наука, яка у ХХ столітті зроби- ла революцію у сфері матеріального виробництва та в багатьох інших сферах людської діяльності, а також у природі технічного прогресу, привела до нової якості життя в розвинених країнах Заходу і Сходу. Загалом формування взаємодії природи й суспільства на новому, якісному рівні пов’язане саме з розвитком науки. Сьогодні наука – складний і суперечливий об’єкт із позиції його існування й розвитку. Це стосується як історичного роз- витку науки (діахронічний аспект), так і її поточного стану (синхронічний аспект). Наука, як цілеспрямована, багатостороння, структурована сфера діяльності, має конкретну мету, предмет, засоби дії. Статтю при- свячено становленню та діяльності видавничого дому «Елм» у перші роки його існування. Вивчено загальну систему книговидання в Азербайджані в післявоєнні роки та визначено місце видавництва «Елм» у цій системі. Тематико-типологічний аналіз книжкового продукту, сформованого в результаті діяльності зазначеного видав- ництва, свідчить про те, що головним завданням видавництва «Елм» був не тільки друк необхідної продукції, а й реалізація її на користь науки. Для обґрунтування ролі видавництва в розвитку книжкової друкованої продукції використано різні статистичні показники та факти.

Actual tendencies of the methodology of the history of psychology in light of the philosophic and methodological problems of historiography

The article examines the features of the development of the history of psychology in light of the general trends in the development of historiography. The characteristics of historical knowledge as a whole are discussed, debated, and the problematic points in the development of historical science are highlighted. Questions are raised concerning the relationship between the history of science, in particular, the history of psychology and history as a science in general. Based on the material of domestic and foreign sources on the history of the development of historical science, the main trends of history as a branch of scientific knowledge are provided, as well as its features in view of the influence of postmodern trends, such as criticism of the historicist approach, rejection of the idea of the direction of the historical process, actualization of the ideas of historical relativism and the problem of correlating historical fact and its representation, a consequence of the “linguistic turn”. It is shown that the development of the history of psychology mainly occurs in accordance with trends in the development of historical science. There is a turn in the understanding and conceptualization of historical experience and historical fact and there is an awareness of the need to revise the boundaries of the subject of study and the focus of research, a gradual rejection of positivist tendencies and revolution in relation to the text as historical material. The article highlights the specific features of the history of psychology as a result of its integration into psychological science and the characteristics of the scientific community of historians of psychology. Also, due to the analysis of the trends in the development of Russian psychological science, it is indicated that the general direction of the nearest development both for the historical and psychological sciences, and for the history of psychology, is the awareness of the need to conceptualize such a phenomenon as context. Also, despite the dominance of positivist tendencies in Russian psychology, expressed first of all in the desire to search for patterns of the historical process (in this case, the process of development of psychological scientific knowledge), shifts were noted in understanding the need to expand the subject of research and search for new philosophical and methodological grounds.

A Grave for the King and His People: Documenting the Excavation of the Tsuki-no-wa Tomb (1953-1954)

In the summer of 1953, the small village of Yukamura in Okayama Prefecture, Japan, became a major archeological site. The excavation of the Tsuki-no-wa tomb (created in late 4th — early 5th century) was initiated by the local residents with no professional training in archeology. The project became one of the most ambitious and successful endeavors of the People’s History Movement (kokumin-teki rekishigaku undo) led by the Marxist historians in early 1950s in Japan. The “memory” of the excavation has been meticulously documented in scientific papers, tourist pamphlets, individual memoirs, as well as in the film. A short documentary, The Tsuki-no-wa Tomb (1954), was created at the behest of the people involved in the project. While the film was favorably received by the critics, the Minister of Education refused to grant it with an official “recommendation.” Today the short documentary is considered a symbol of the political and cultural mainstream, which adheres to the ideas of social equality and democracy, the importance of a scientific approach, the concept of the “monoethnic” origins of Japan, and the symbolic status of the emperor. In this paper, the paradoxical role of the Japanese leftists in supporting the dominant worldview is examined though the study of The Tsuki-no-wa Tomb. Through analyzing the cinematic text, as well as the history of its production and reception, we come to a better understanding of the ideological and organizational underpinnings of the People’s History Movement, illuminating the film’s role in the development of historical science and documentary filmmaking in postwar Japan.

ЮБИЛЕЙНЫЕ ОТРАДНЕНСКИЕ ЧТЕНИЯ 2020 В КУБАНСКОЙ СТАНИЦЕ: ОБЗОР СБОРНИКА КОНФЕРЕНЦИИ К 160-ЛЕТИЮ КУБАНСКИХ КАЗАКОВ

The reason for writing the article was the publication of a collection of materials from the anniversary readings of Otradnaya, dedicated in 2020 to the 160th anniversary of the formation of the Kuban Cossack army. The relevance of the study of local history and local historiography is determined by the latest trends in the development of historical science in Russia and in the world. Today, studies of the Cossack village everyday life in the South of Russia are an important and relevant component of agrarian history. Therefore, it is of great interest to study the historical, archival, local history and archaeological activities of the Otrad-nensky regional society of historians and archivists in the village of Otradnaya, Otradnensky district of the Krasnodar Territory.

FORMATION OF HISTORICAL SCIENCE IN KYRGYZSTAN

The article examines the work of the education system for the training of historians in Kyrgyzstan and the activities of historians who have contributed to the formation of historical science. The process of the formation and development of historical science took place on the basis of the challenges of the time in the system of world sciences. As in world history, the formation and development of historical science in Kyrgyzstan consists of several stages and was inextricably linked with the work of the People's Commissariat of Education of the KKAO on the training of scientific personnel in 1925-45. The specialties of Russian history, archeology, ethnography, historiography of historical science were formed precisely during this period. The article analyzes the role of scientific and pedagogical activities of prominent historians V.V. Bartold, A.N. Bernshtam, S.M. Abramzon, M.P. Vyatkin and local scholarly historians B. Dzhamgerchinov, A. Khasanov, S. Ilyasov in the formation of historical science in Kyrgyzstan.

НАУКОВО-ОРГАНІЗАЦІЙНА ДІЯЛЬНІСТЬ О. ПРІЦАКА В УКРАЇНІ ПІСЛЯ 1991 РОКУ

The article is devoted to the scientific and organizational activities of O. Prytsak in Ukraine after 1991. It was during this period against the background of favorable political circumstances that the scientist was able to come to Ukraine and begin his active work on the development of historical science in our country. The key directions to which the scientist’s activity was directed are considered. First of all, much attention is paid to the establishment of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, as well as the revival of the journal “Eastern World”. In addition to the development of Oriental studies, O. Prytsak dealt with other issues concerning the development of historical science in Ukraine. He proposed to create the Department of Historiosophy at Kyiv State University named after Taras Shevchenko. At the historical faculty of this university O. Prytsak gave lectures on philosophy and methodology of history. During the study period, the scientist had repeatedly acted as a dissertation supervisor and was an official opponent in the defense of dissertations. In the personal archive of the scientist one may find reviews and responses to works on the history of Ukraine of the Middle Ages, the age of the Cossacks, the history of nomadic peoples of Asia, oriental linguistics, general linguistics, as well as political and cultural history. The article highlights O. Prytsak’s participation in the scientific events, in which he made reports that were the results of his research in the field of the Ukrainian history and oriental studies. As a result of the study, it was concluded that O. Prytsak made a great contribution to the revival of Oriental Studies in Ukraine, was active in establishing the Department of Historiosophy at Kyiv State University named after Taras Shevchenko, brought up a whole galaxy of students who are currently well-known and authoritative researchers both in Ukraine and abroad. The scientific activity of the scientist has received recognition all over the world, as evidenced by his numerous international awards and distinctions.

Badania dotyczące praktyki postu w rosyjskiej historiografii kościelnej w okresie przedrewolucyjnym

<p>Chrześcijaństwo od wieków określało ideologię rozwoju społecznego Europy. Cerkiew znacząco wpływała na bieg wydarzeń historycznych, konstytuując światopogląd jednostki i społeczeństwa. Post chrześcijański jest ważnym składnikiem odrodzenia duchowego, sposobem opanowania naturalnych ludzkich instynktów, wyrazem posłuszeństwa wobec Boga. Chociaż historiografia postu nie została dotąd szczegółowo zbadana, wzbudza ona obecnie duże zainteresowa­nie badaczy jako kwestia aktualna i perspektywiczna. Celem pracy jest określenie kierunków badań nad postem, podjętych przez związanych z cerkwią historyków w okresie narodzin i rozwoju rosyjskiej historiografii cerkiewnej. Powstanie państwa absolutystycznego w Rosji wywołało działania reformatorskie, które znacząco wpłynęły na rozwój nauk historycznych. Autor artykułu analizuje genezę i rozwój rosyjskiej historiografii cerkiewnej w okresie cesarstwa (1725–1917), omawia stan badań nad postem w ujęciu związanych z cerkwią historyków rosyjskich. Pod koniec XVIII i w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku badacze nie stawiali konkretnych celów badawczych, więc wyniki ich ustaleń były obarczone prawosławną apologetyką i ograniczały się do opisu spuścizny rosyjskiej hierarchii cerkiewnej. To zadecydowało o uproszczeniu analiz, opierających się na prowidencjalizmie jako metodzie badawczej. Dopiero w okresie reform liberalnych w latach 60. XIX wieku intensyfikuje się działalność badawcza, a prace historyków stają się wieloaspektowe. Badania nad postem prowadzono przy wykorzystaniu źródeł greckich, łacińskich i słowiańskich. W badaniach historycznych dotyczących postu zaszły duże zmiany: obecnie dominują tendencje do wyboru i prezentacji w monografiach wąskiej problematyki. Post jest opisywany w powiązaniu z historią ogólną chrześcijaństwa i prawosławia, a także w kontekście teologii etyki, w której historia postu zajmuje znaczące miejsce.</p>

SISI ABU-ABU KAUSALITAS DAN EVALUASINYA DALAM PEMBELAJARAN SEJARAH

The development of historical science in exploring the causes of historical phenomena or causality with monocausal and multicausal approaches has progressed rapidly. However, it is inversely proportional to the study of history which still often explains historical causality with a single one (monocausality) or a centric logo without a scientific approach with a cognitive assessment only. Whereas the causes of history can be explained by the approach of a science (monocausality) and various (multi causality) with a multidimensional approach. The purpose of this study is to provide an alternative for teachers who teach history so that students can analyze various historical causality so that they are not only able to think critically but also be creative and adults so they can get used to the differences. Likewise, the assessment must be directed towards authentic assessment that can bring students to be creative and mature so that they are familiar with differences. The source of this study is through literature studies. The results of the writing are an alternative for history teachers so that students are accustomed to analyzing causality in seeing historical phenomena both mono under the demands of the 2013 curriculum.

Institucional'nye i teoretiko-metodologicheskie osnovy razvitiya istoricheskoj nauki v Kabardino-Balkarii v 1920-h — 1980-h gg.

Institucional'nye i teoretiko-metodologicheskie osnovy razvitiya istoricheskoj nauki v Kabardino-Balkarii v 1920-h — 1980-h gg.

Introduction to the Thematic Issue of the Journal of Siberian Federal University “Historical Science: Regional and World Tendencies

This introduction to the thematic issue devoted to Russian historical science reveals the principle of research development as it presents the findings of this research. The articles present the problems of modern historical science and reveal the essence of the materials under study and their importance for modern science. The key tendencies in the development of historical science, culture studies and history of art are determined in the context of the world outline of modern humanities. All studies were based on specific conceptual and methodological approaches with some articles written within the framework of the Siberian Historical Forum held in October 2019. Some articles pay special attention to Siberian regional aspects, as well as there are articles connected with the history of the humanities, education in the field of the humanities in higher educational institutions of the Siberian Federal District. Within the framework of ethnic and migration issues, cases connected with the research in these fields are considered. The geography of the authors is quite varied: from Moscow to Ulan-Ude. Quite a big section is devoted to the history of various ethno-cultural groups of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The historical science has a special meaning in terms of problem solving of historical and cultural memory. This thematic issue of the Journal of Siberian Federal University, the Humanities series, is aimed at forming this historical memory on the objective scientific basis

Exploration of the European North of Russia by the Geological Committee during the 1882-1918

The object of this research is the history of scientific development of the European North of Russia in the late XIX – early XX century. The subject of this research is the historical role of the Geological Committee in exploration of this territory. The chronological framework covers the period from 1882 to 1918, since the establishment of scientific institution until its reorganization as a result of revolutionary events of 1917. Based on the archival and published sources, the author analyzes expedition activity of the Geological Committee in Northern Ural, Timman, Novaya Zemlya, and the Kola Peninsula in the late XIX – early XX centuries, the results of which became the first systematic integrated explorations on regional geology of the European North of Russia. The indicated problematic has not previously become the subject of separate research. It is proven that research of the European North of Russia was one of the priority vectors of the Geological Committee at the time. The following expedition results are highlighted:  a substantial territory of the European North of Russia is explored; thorough geological surveying is conducted; extensive paleontological collection is amassed; mineral deposits are discovered that gave science conceptually new data on geological development of this region. Research conducted by the Geological Committee demonstrated the resource potential of northern territories and raised the question on the need for their inclusion into economic development of the country, which became an important factor for further development of the European North of Russia.

The work of Mark Antonovych in the Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences (USA)

The purpose of the article is to characterize Mark Antonovichʼs activities at the Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences (USA) as President of the UAN and to determine his contribution to the development of the Academy. Methods of research: historical-typological, historical-genetic, historical-system. Main results: An important contribution to the development and preservation of Ukrainian historical science can be considered the work of researchers in the scientific institutions of the diaspora in the twentieth century. The article analyzes the scientific and organizational work of Marko Dmytrovych Antonovych as an active member of the Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences (UVAN). Marko Dmytrovych joined the scientific institution at the beginning of its foundation. The researcher took an active part in scientific conferences and fruitfully co-operated in the first group of History and Early History with auxiliary sciences, where Marko Antonovych served as secretary. After being elected President by the UVAN in the United States, he devoted himself entirely to the work of the organization. The scientist was in this position during 1992–1997. As the President of UVAN, M. Antonovych participated in the organization of scientific conferences speaking up with the reports. In addition, he was engaged in editing and preparing for the publication of scientific publications. During this period, under the auspices of UIA under the editorship or with the introductory word of M. Antonovych nine editions were published. On his initiative, the reorganization and modernization of the archive and library began. It was planned to inventory library and archival funds, the recruitment of a professional librarian and the purchase of a computer for the introduction of an electronic catalog (including the creation of e-mail). In addition, it was suggested to contact US and Canadian universities to collaborate on microfilming and preservation of some of the most valuable book and archive funds. It was during the presidency of Marko Dmytrovych that an agreement was signed on cooperation between the Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences in the USA and the T. H. Shevchenko Institute of Literature of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine for ten years (1997-2007), the active cooperation of the Institute with UVAN in Canada, the Historical and Philological Section of NTSh and NTSh in Lviv, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, the Ukrainian Research Institute of Harvard University, the Harriman Institute and other academic institutions in America, Europe and Canada. UVAN occupied an important place in the organization of scientific life in the diaspora. Marko Antonovych, being a full member, and later also the President of the Academy, greatly contributed to the development of historical science. Thanks to his hard work, collections of archival materials and works by renowned scholars were published. His efforts to reorganize the archives and libraries also had a positive impact on the organization of the scientific activity of the UVAN, and, consequently, on the whole historical science. Practical significance: recommended for use in studying the activities of the Ukrainian diaspora, the work of scientific institutions abroad. Originality: A generalization of UAV activities in the United States was used during the period 1992–1997. Scientific novelty: documents from the UIT archive (Ukraine) and the UVAN archive (USA) were used for the first time. Article type: analitycal.

ПРОБЛЕМА ПЕРИОДИЗАЦИИ ВСЕОБЩЕЙ ИСТОРИИ В «КРАТКОМ КУРСЕ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ НАУКИ» А. А. БОГДАНОВА

The article is devoted to the problem of periodization of universal history in the work "A Short Course in Economic Science" written by Alexander Bogdanov. It analyzes the changes in the periodization of the historical process in various editions of the work, identifies the intellectual sources of those changes and establishes a connection between the evolution of Bogdanov’s historical concept and the development of historical science in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The main direction in the evolution of Bogdanov’s historical views was the transition from a linear progressive scheme of world history to a description of history as a complex non-linear process in which periods of development are combined with periods of decline and stagnation. Abandoning the idea of steady linear progress, Bogdanov also abandoned the strict correspondence between a specific economic form and a certain historical era and concluded that various economic forms could coexist. The changes in Bogdanov’s approaches to the question of the role of economic forms in the periodization of world historical process testify to his search for special features specifying various eras in the history of mankind and reflect a general interest in the substantial characteristics of time characteristic of the European intellectual space of the first third of the 20th century