Hepatitis C Virus Vaccine Development Research Articles

CD4+ T cell help during early acute hepacivirus infection is critical for viral clearance and the generation of a liver-homing CD103+CD49a+ effector CD8+ T cell subset.

In hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are crucial for viral control. However, a detailed understanding of the kinetic of CD4+ T cell help and its role in the generation of different CD8+ T cell subsets during acute infection is lacking. The absence of a small HCV animal model has impeded mechanistic studies of hepatic antiviral T cell immunity and HCV vaccine development. In this study, we used a recently developed HCV-related rodent hepacivirus infection mouse model to investigate the impact of CD4+ T cell help on the hepatic CD8+ T cell response and viral clearance during hepacivirus infection in vivo. Our results revealed a specific kinetic of CD4+ T cell dependency during acute infection. Early CD4+ T cell help was essential for CD8+ T cell priming and viral clearance, while CD4+ T cells became dispensable during later stages of acute infection. Effector CD8+ T cells directly mediated timely hepacivirus clearance. An analysis of hepatic CD8+ T cells specific for two different viral epitopes revealed the induction of subsets of liver-homing CD103+CD49a+ and CD103-CD49a+ effector CD8+ T cells with elevated IFN-γ and TNF-α production. CD103+CD49a+ T cells further persisted as tissue-resident memory subsets. A lack of CD4+ T cell help and CD40L-CD40 interactions resulted in reduced effector functions and phenotypical changes in effector CD8+ T cells and a specific loss of the CD103+CD49a+ subset. In summary, our study shows that early CD4+ T cell help through CD40L signaling is essential for priming functional effector CD8+ T cell subsets, including unique liver-homing subsets, and hepacivirus clearance.

Update on Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Vaccine Candidates in Clinical Trials: A Systematic Literature Review

Introduction: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection remains a significant global health challenge, affecting over 71 million people worldwide and leading to severe liver diseases such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Despite the availability of highly effective direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapies achieving sustained virologic response (SVR) rates exceeding 90%, high costs and limited accessibility impede global eradication efforts. Additionally, DAAs do not confer immunity against reinfection, highlighting the need for a prophylactic vaccine. Methods: This systematic literature review follows the PRISMA guidelines. A comprehensive search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for articles published between January 2010 and March 2024, focusing on HCV vaccine candidates in clinical trials. Data on study characteristics, participant demographics, vaccine characteristics, vaccine platforms and key outcomes were extracted. Results: Nine studies met the eligibility criteria, covering various phases of clinical trials (Phase I, II, and II/III). Key findings included: Vaccine platforms: The studies primarily utilized three types of vaccine platforms: Viral Vector-Based Vaccines, Peptide-Based Vaccines and Recombinant Protein Vaccines Immunogenicity: Vaccines targeting non-structural proteins (NS3, NS4, NS5) induced robust T-cell responses. Chimpanzee adenovirus (ChAd) and Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA) vector-based vaccines showed high polyfunctional CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell levels. Safety: Most adverse events were mild to moderate, including flu-like symptoms and injection site reactions. Severe adverse events were noted with TG4040 when combined with PEG-IFNα and RBV. Efficacy: Significant reductions in viral load and improvements in liver function were reported. Personalized peptide vaccines demonstrated enhanced immune responses and improved overall survival in HCV-positive advanced HCC patients. Conclusion: HCV vaccine development has made significant strides, with several candidates demonstrating strong immunogenicity, acceptable safety, and promising efficacy in clinical trials. Continued research is essential to address challenges such as viral genetic variability, durability of immune responses, and global accessibility.

B-cell characteristics define HCV reinfection outcome

In individuals highly exposed to HCV, reinfection is common, suggesting that natural development of sterilising immunity is difficult. In those that are reinfected, some will develop a persistent infection, while a small proportion repeatedly clear the virus, suggesting natural protection is possible. The aim of this study was to characterise immune responses associated with rapid natural clearance of HCV reinfection. Broad neutralising antibodies (nAbs) and Envelope 2 (E2)-specific memory B cell (MBC) responses were examined longitudinally in 15 individuals with varied reinfection outcomes. Broad nAb responses were associated with MBC recall, but not with clearance of reinfection. Strong evidence of antigen imprinting was found, and the B-cell receptor repertoire showed a high level of clonality with ongoing somatic hypermutation of many clones over subsequent reinfection events. Single-cell transcriptomic analyses showed that cleared reinfections featured an activated transcriptomic profile in HCV-specific B cells that rapidly expanded upon reinfection. MBC quality, but not necessarily breadth of nAb responses, is important for protection against antigenically diverse variants, which is encouraging for HCV vaccine development. HCV continues to have a major health burden globally. Limitations in the health infrastructure for diagnosis and treatment, as well as high rates of reinfection, indicate that a vaccine that can protect against chronic HCV infection will greatly complement current efforts to eliminate HCV-related disease. With alternative approaches to testing vaccines, such as controlled human inoculation trials under consideration, we desperately need to identify the correlates of immune protection. In this study, in a small but rare cohort of high-risk injecting drug users who were reinfected multiple times, breadth of neutralisation was not associated with ultimate clearance of the reinfection event. Alternatively, characteristics of the HCV-specific B-cell response associated with B-cell proliferation were. This study indicates that humoral responses are important for protection and suggests that for genetically very diverse viruses, such as HCV, it may be beneficial to look beyond just antibodies as correlates of protection.

A panel of hepatitis C virus glycoproteins for the characterization of antibody responses using antibodies with diverse recognition and neutralization patterns

A vaccine against Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is urgently needed to limit the spread of HCV. The large antigenic diversity of the HCV glycoprotein E1E2 makes it difficult to design a vaccine but also to fully understand the antibody response after infection or vaccination.Here we designed a panel of HCV pseudoparticles (HCVpps) that cover a wide range of genetically and antigenically diverse E1E2s. We validate our panel using neutralization and a binding antibody multiplex assay (BAMA). The panel of HCVpps includes E1E2 glycoproteins from acute and chronically infected cases in the Netherlands, as well as E1E2 glycoproteins from previously reported HCVs.Using eight monoclonal antibodies targeting multiple antigenic regions on E1E2, we could categorize four groups of neutralization sensitive viruses with viruses showing neutralization titers over a 100-fold range. One HCVpp (AMS0230) was extremely neutralization resistant and only neutralized by AR4-targeting antibodies. In addition, using binding antibody multiplex competition assay, we delineated mAb epitopes and their interactions. The binding and neutralization sensitivity of the HCVpps were confirmed using patient sera. At the end, eleven HCVpps with unique antibody binding and neutralization profiles were selected as the final panel for standardized HCV antibody assessments.In conclusion, this HCVpp panel can be used to evaluate antibody binding and neutralization breadth and potency as well as delineate the epitopes targeted in sera from patients or candidate vaccine trials. The HCVpp panel in combination with the established antibody competition assay present highly valuable tools for HCV vaccine development and evaluation.

Neutralizing antibodies evolve to exploit vulnerable sites in the HCV envelope glycoprotein E2 and mediate spontaneous clearance of infection

Individuals who clear primary hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections clear subsequent reinfections more than 80% of the time, but the mechanisms are poorly defined. Here, we used HCV variants and plasma from individuals with repeated clearance to characterize longitudinal changes in envelope glycoprotein E2 sequences, function, and neutralizing antibody (NAb) resistance. Clearance of infection was associated with early selection of viruses with NAb resistance substitutions that also reduced E2 binding to CD81, the primary HCV receptor. Later, peri-clearance plasma samples regained neutralizing capacity against these variants. We identified a subset of broadly NAbs (bNAbs) for which these loss-of-fitness substitutions conferred resistance to unmutated bNAb ancestors but increased sensitivity to mature bNAbs. These data demonstrate a mechanism by which neutralizing antibodies contribute to repeated immune-mediated HCV clearance, identifying specific bNAbs that exploit fundamental vulnerabilities in E2. The induction of bNAbs with these specificities should be a goal of HCV vaccine development.

Future Prospects, Approaches, and the Government's Role in the Development of a Hepatitis C Virus Vaccine.

Developing a safe and effective vaccine against the hepatitis C virus (HCV) remains a top priority for global health. Despite recent advances in antiviral therapies, the high cost and limited accessibility of these treatments impede their widespread application, particularly in resource-limited settings. Therefore, the development of the HCV vaccine remains a necessity. This review article analyzes the current technologies, future prospects, strategies, HCV genomic targets, and the governmental role in HCV vaccine development. We discuss the current epidemiological landscape of HCV infection and the potential of HCV structural and non-structural protein antigens as vaccine targets. In addition, the involvement of government agencies and policymakers in supporting and facilitating the development of HCV vaccines is emphasized. We explore how vaccine development regulatory channels and frameworks affect research goals, funding, and public health policy. The significance of international and public-private partnerships in accelerating the development of an HCV vaccine is examined. Finally, the future directions for developing an HCV vaccine are discussed. In conclusion, the review highlights the urgent need for a preventive vaccine to fight the global HCV disease and the significance of collaborative efforts between scientists, politicians, and public health organizations to reach this important public health goal.

HCV E1 influences the fitness landscape ofE2 andmay enhance escape from E2-specific antibodies.

The Hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope glycoprotein E1 forms a non-covalent heterodimer with E2, the main target of neutralizing antibodies. How E1-E2 interactions influence viral fitness and contribute to resistance to E2-specific antibodies remain largely unknown. We investigate this problem using a combination of fitness landscape and evolutionary modeling. Our analysis indicates that E1 and E2 proteins collectively mediate viral fitness and suggests that fitness-compensating E1 mutations may accelerate escape from E2-targeting antibodies. Our analysis also identifies a set of E2-specific human monoclonal antibodies that are predicted to be especially resilient to escape via genetic variation in both E1 and E2, providing directions for robust HCV vaccine development.

Convergent antibody responses are associated with broad neutralization of hepatitis C virus.

Early development of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) targeting the hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope glycoprotein E2 is associated with spontaneous clearance of infection, so induction of bNAbs is a major goal of HCV vaccine development. However, the molecular antibody features important for broad neutralization are not known. To identify B cell repertoire features associated with broad neutralization, we performed RNA sequencing of the B cell receptors (BCRs) of HCV E2-reactive B cells of HCV-infected individuals with either high or low plasma neutralizing breadth. We then produced a monoclonal antibody (mAb) expressed by pairing the most abundant heavy and light chains from public clonotypes identified among clearance, high neutralization subjects. We found distinctive BCR features associated with broad neutralization of HCV, including long heavy chain complementarity determining region 3 (CDRH3) regions, specific VH gene usage, increased frequencies of somatic hypermutation, and particular VH gene mutations. Most intriguing, we identified many E2-reactive public BCR clonotypes (heavy and light chain clones with the same V and J-genes and identical CDR3 sequences) present only in subjects who produced highly neutralizing plasma. The majority of these public clonotypes were shared by two subjects who cleared infection. A mAb expressing the most abundant public heavy and light chains from these clearance, high neutralization subjects had features enriched in high neutralization clonotypes, such as increased somatic hypermutation frequency and usage of IGHV1-69, and was cross-neutralizing. Together, these results demonstrate distinct BCR repertoires associated with high plasma neutralizing capacity. Further characterization of the molecular features and function of these antibodies can inform HCV vaccine development.

Differential immune transcriptomic profiles between vaccinated and resolved HCV reinfected subjects.

Successive episodes of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection represent a unique natural rechallenge experiment to define correlates of long-term protective immunity and inform vaccine development. We applied a systems immunology approach to characterize longitudinal changes in the peripheral blood transcriptomic signatures in eight subjects who spontaneously resolved two successive HCV infections. Furthermore, we compared these signatures with those induced by an HCV T cell-based vaccine regimen. We identified a plasma cell transcriptomic signature during early acute HCV reinfection. This signature was absent in primary infection and following HCV vaccine boost. Spontaneous resolution of HCV reinfection was associated with rapid expansion of glycoprotein E2-specifc memory B cells in three subjects and transient increase in E2-specific neutralizing antibodies in six subjects. Concurrently, there was an increase in the breadth and magnitude of HCV-specific T cells in 7 out of 8 subjects. These results suggest a cooperative role for both antibodies and T cells in clearance of HCV reinfection and support the development of next generation HCV vaccines targeting these two arms of the immune system.

Novel HCV Genotype 4d Infectious Systems and Assessment of Direct-Acting Antivirals and Antibody Neutralization.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 4 is highly prevalent in the Middle East and parts of Africa. Subtype 4d has recently spread among high-risk groups in Europe. However, 4d infectious culture systems are not available, hampering studies of drugs, as well as neutralizing antibodies relevant for HCV vaccine development. We determined the consensus 4d sequence from a chronic hepatitis C patient by next-generation sequencing, generated a full-length clone thereof (pDH13), and demonstrated that pDH13 RNA-transcripts were viable in the human-liver chimeric mouse model, but not in Huh7.5 cells. However, a JFH1-based DH13 Core-NS5A 4d clone encoding A1671S, T1785V, and D2411G was viable in Huh7.5 cells, with efficient growth after inclusion of 10 additional substitutions [4d(C5A)-13m]. The efficacies of NS3/4A protease- and NS5A- inhibitors against genotypes 4a and 4d were similar, except for ledipasvir, which is less potent against 4d. Compared to 4a, the 4d(C5A)-13m virus was more sensitive to neutralizing monoclonal antibodies AR3A and AR5A, as well as 4a and 4d patient plasma antibodies. In conclusion, we developed the first genotype 4d infectious culture system enabling DAA efficacy testing and antibody neutralization assessment critical to optimization of DAA treatments in the clinic and for vaccine design to combat the HCV epidemic.

Developing an Epitope-Based Peptide Vaccine for the Hepatitis C Virus Using an in Silico Approach

A vaccine has still not been found for the hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the number of global cases of HCV is still high. The development of HCV vaccines is challenging due to the complex genetic diversity of the virus. Epitope-based vaccine design using in silico computational methods is an effective strategy that could lead to the development of vaccines with the ability to induce the required immunogenicity without the emergence of cytokine storms or immune tolerance. This study aimed to find an epitope candidate from the HCV E2 protein which has potential as a peptide vaccine. The research was observational descriptive and was carried out in silico on an HCV vaccine candidate. The software used was MEGA X, IEDB, VaxiJen 2.0, BLASTp. 3 conserved regions were obtained from 10 countries, namely VCGPVYCFTPSPVVVGTTD, CPTDCFRK, and YRLWHYPCT. The sequences between these countries still have phylogenetic relationships, even though they are in different branches, showing the evolution of the HCV subtypes. The VYCFTPSPVVVGTTD epitope became the candidate for the development of a peptide vaccine because of its antigenicity score and its ability to be used for effective epitope-based vaccines. This HCV vaccine candidate epitope does not cause an autoimmune response because it has been confirmed to be using BLASTp with the result that it shares no similarity with human cell surface proteins.
 Keywords: vaccines, peptides, epitope, hepatitis C virus, in silico

A Hepatitis C virus genotype 1b post-transplant isolate with high replication efficiency in cell culture and its adaptation to infectious virus production in vitro and in vivo.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is highly diverse and grouped into eight genotypes (gts). Infectious cell culture models are limited to a few subtypes and isolates, hampering the development of prophylactic vaccines. A consensus gt1b genome (termed GLT1) was generated from an HCV infected liver-transplanted patient. GLT1 replicated to an outstanding efficiency in Huh7 cells upon SEC14L2 expression, by use of replication enhancing mutations or with a previously developed inhibitor-based regimen. RNA replication levels almost reached JFH-1, but full-length genomes failed to produce detectable amounts of infectious virus. Long-term passaging led to the adaptation of a genome carrying 21 mutations and concomitant production of high levels of transmissible infectivity (GLT1cc). During the adaptation, GLT1 spread in the culture even in absence of detectable amounts of free virus, likely due to cell-to-cell transmission, which appeared to substantially contribute to spreading of other isolates as well. Mechanistically, genome replication and particle production efficiency were enhanced by adaptation, while cell entry competence of HCV pseudoparticles was not affected. Furthermore, GLT1cc retained the ability to replicate in human liver chimeric mice, which was critically dependent on a mutation in domain 3 of nonstructural protein NS5A. Over the course of infection, only one mutation in the surface glycoprotein E2 consistently reverted to wildtype, facilitating assembly in cell culture but potentially affecting CD81 interaction in vivo. Overall, GLT1cc is an efficient gt1b infectious cell culture model, paving the road to a rationale-based establishment of new infectious HCV isolates and represents an important novel tool for the development of prophylactic HCV vaccines.

B cell overexpression of FCRL5 and PD-1 is associated with low antibody titers in HCV infection.

Antibodies targeting the hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope glycoprotein E2 are associated with delayed disease progression, and these antibodies can also facilitate spontaneous clearance of infection in some individuals. However, many infected people demonstrate low titer and delayed anti-E2 antibody responses. Since a goal of HCV vaccine development is induction of high titers of anti-E2 antibodies, it is important to define the mechanisms underlying these suboptimal antibody responses. By staining lymphocytes with a cocktail of soluble E2 (sE2) glycoproteins, we detected HCV E2-specific (sE2+) B cells directly ex vivo at multiple acute infection timepoints in 29 HCV-infected subjects with a wide range of anti-E2 IgG titers, including 17 persistently infected subjects and 12 subjects with spontaneous clearance of infection. We performed multi-dimensional flow cytometric analysis of sE2+ and E2-nonspecific (sE2-) class-switched B cells (csBC). In sE2+ csBC from both persistence and clearance subjects, frequencies of resting memory B cells (rMBC) were reduced, frequencies of activated MBC (actMBC) and tissue-like MBC (tlMBC) were increased, and expression of FCRL5, an IgG receptor, was significantly upregulated. Across all subjects, plasma anti-E2 IgG levels were positively correlated with frequencies of sE2+ rMBC and sE2+ actMBC, while anti-E2 IgG levels were negatively correlated with levels of FCRL5 expression on sE2+ rMBC and PD-1 expression on sE2+ actMBC. Upregulation of FCRL5 on sE2+ rMBC and upregulation of PD-1 on sE2+ actMBC may limit anti-E2 antibody production in vivo. Strategies that limit upregulation of these molecules could potentially generate higher titers of protective antibodies against HCV or other pathogens.

BacMam virus-based surface display for HCV E2 glycoprotein induces strong cross-neutralizing antibodies and cellular immune responses in vaccinated mice

BackgroundDespite recent advancements, limitations in the treatment and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection reprioritized the studies for invention of an efficient HCV vaccine to elicit strong neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) and cellular responses.MethodsHerein, we report molecular construction of a BacMam virus-based surface display for a subtype-1a HCV gpE2 (Bac-CMV-E2-gp64; Bac) that both expressed and displayed gpE2 in mammalian cells and bacouloviral envelope, respectively.ResultsAssessments by western blotting, Immunofluorescence and Immunogold-electron microscopy indicated the proper expression and incorporation in insect cell and baculovirus envelope, respectively. Mice immunized in three different prime-boost immunization groups of: Bac/Bac, Bac/Pro (bacoulovirus-derived gpE2) and Bac/DNA (plasmid DNA (pCDNA)-encoding gpE2) developed high levels of IgG and IFN-γ (highest for Bac/Bac group) indicating the induction of both humeral and cellular immune responses. Calculation of the IgG2a/IgG1 and IFN-γ/IL-4 ratios indicated a Th1 polarization of immune responses in the Bac/Bac and Bac/DNA groups but a balanced Th1-Th2 phenotype in the Bac/Pro group. Sera of the mice in the Bac/Bac group provided the highest percentage of cross-NAbs against a subtype-2a HCVcc (JFH1) compared to Bac/Pro and Bac/DNA groups (62% versus 41% and 6%).ConclusionsResults indicated that BacMam virus-based surface display for gpE2 might act as both subunit and DNA vaccine and offers a promising strategy for development of HCV vaccine for concurrent induction of strong humoral and cellular immune responses.

Where to Next? Research Directions after the First Hepatitis C Vaccine Efficacy Trial.

Thirty years after its discovery, the hepatitis C virus (HCV) remains a leading cause of liver disease worldwide. Given that many countries continue to experience high rates of transmission despite the availability of potent antiviral therapies, an effective vaccine is seen as critical for the elimination of HCV. The recent failure of the first vaccine efficacy trial for the prevention of chronic HCV confirmed suspicions that this virus will be a challenging vaccine target. Here, we examine the published data from this first efficacy trial along with the earlier clinical and pre-clinical studies of the vaccine candidate and then discuss three key research directions expected to be important in ongoing and future HCV vaccine development. These include the following: 1. design of novel immunogens that generate immune responses to genetically diverse HCV genotypes and subtypes, 2. strategies to elicit broadly neutralizing antibodies against envelope glycoproteins in addition to cytotoxic and helper T cell responses, and 3. consideration of the unique immunological status of individuals most at risk for HCV infection, including those who inject drugs, in vaccine platform development and early immunogenicity trials.

Hepatitis C virus E2 envelope glycoprotein produced in Nicotiana benthamiana triggers humoral response with virus-neutralizing activity in vaccinated mice.

SummaryChronic infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) remains a leading cause of liver‐related pathologies and a global health problem, currently affecting more than 71 million people worldwide. The development of a prophylactic vaccine is much needed to complement the effective antiviral treatment available and achieve HCV eradication. Current strategies focus on increasing the immunogenicity of the HCV envelope glycoprotein E2, the major target of virus‐neutralizing antibodies, by testing various expression systems or manipulating the protein conformation and the N‐glycosylation pattern. Here we report the first evidence of successful production of the full‐length HCV E2 glycoprotein in Nicotiana benthamiana, by using the Agrobacterium‐mediated transient expression technology. Molecular and functional analysis showed that the viral protein was correctly processed in plant cells and achieved the native folding required for binding to CD81, one of the HCV receptors. N‐glycan analysis of HCV‐E2 produced in N. benthamiana and mammalian cells indicated host‐specific trimming of mannose residues and possibly, protein trafficking. Notably, the plant‐derived viral antigen triggered a significant immune response in vaccinated mice, characterized by the presence of antibodies with HCV‐neutralizing activity. Together, our study demonstrates that N. benthamiana is a viable alternative to costly mammalian cell cultures for the expression of complex viral antigens and supports the use of plants as cost‐effective production platforms for the development of HCV vaccines.

Structure-Based and Rational Design of a Hepatitis C Virus Vaccine.

A hepatitis C virus (HCV) vaccine is a critical yet unfulfilled step in addressing the global disease burden of HCV. While decades of research have led to numerous clinical and pre-clinical vaccine candidates, these efforts have been hindered by factors including HCV antigenic variability and immune evasion. Structure-based and rational vaccine design approaches have capitalized on insights regarding the immune response to HCV and the structures of antibody-bound envelope glycoproteins. Despite successes with other viruses, designing an immunogen based on HCV glycoproteins that can elicit broadly protective immunity against HCV infection is an ongoing challenge. Here, we describe HCV vaccine design approaches where immunogens were selected and optimized through analysis of available structures, identification of conserved epitopes targeted by neutralizing antibodies, or both. Several designs have elicited immune responses against HCV in vivo, revealing correlates of HCV antigen immunogenicity and breadth of induced responses. Recent studies have elucidated the functional, dynamic and immunological features of key regions of the viral envelope glycoproteins, which can inform next-generation immunogen design efforts. These insights and design strategies represent promising pathways to HCV vaccine development, which can be further informed by successful immunogen designs generated for other viruses.

Design of a native-like secreted form of the hepatitis C virus E1E2 heterodimer

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major worldwide health burden, and a preventive vaccine is needed for global control or eradication of this virus. A substantial hurdle to an effective HCV vaccine is the high variability of the virus, leading to immune escape. The E1E2 glycoprotein complex contains conserved epitopes and elicits neutralizing antibody responses, making it a primary target for HCV vaccine development. However, the E1E2 transmembrane domains that are critical for native assembly make it challenging to produce this complex in a homogenous soluble form that is reflective of its state on the viral envelope. To enable rational design of an E1E2 vaccine, as well as structural characterization efforts, we have designed a soluble, secreted form of E1E2 (sE1E2). As with soluble glycoprotein designs for other viruses, it incorporates a scaffold to enforce assembly in the absence of the transmembrane domains, along with a furin cleavage site to permit native-like heterodimerization. This sE1E2 was found to assemble into a form closer to its expected size than full-length E1E2. Preservation of native structural elements was confirmed by high-affinity binding to a panel of conformationally specific monoclonal antibodies, including two neutralizing antibodies specific to native E1E2 and to its primary receptor, CD81. Finally, sE1E2 was found to elicit robust neutralizing antibodies in vivo. This designed sE1E2 can both provide insights into the determinants of native E1E2 assembly and serve as a platform for production of E1E2 for future structural and vaccine studies, enabling rational optimization of an E1E2-based antigen.

Ethical and Practical Issues Associated With the Possibility of Using Controlled Human Infection Trials in Developing a Hepatitis C Virus Vaccine.

Despite the existence of established treatments for hepatitis C virus (HCV), more effective means of preventing infection, such as a vaccine, are arguably needed to help reduce substantial global morbidity and mortality. Given the expected challenges of developing such a vaccine among those at heightened risk of infection, controlled human infection studies seem to be a promising potential approach to HCV vaccine development, but they raise substantial ethical and practical concerns. In this article, we describe some of the challenges related to the possibility of using controlled human infection studies to accelerate HCV vaccine development. The related ethical and practical concerns require further deliberation before such studies are planned and implemented.

Substitution of the CD81 Binding Site and β-Sandwich Area in E2 of HCV in Cambodia.

The high genetic variability of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the main obstacle to developing a vaccine. E2 has attracted attention for vaccine development because targeting this protein could potentially overcome issues related to the genetic diversity of HCV. In this study, we analyzed HCV genes in the general population of Cambodia and investigated the E2 locus as a candidate for vaccine development. HCV sero-epidemiological surveys were conducted between the period 2010 and 2014, with an HCV RNA–positive rate of 1.3% (11/868). Follow-up blood samples were collected from four anti-HCV– and HCV RNA– positive patients (genotype 1b: 2 cases, 6e: 1 case, 6r: 1 case) after 4.12 years. Analysis of HCV full-length nucleotide sequences in paired specimens revealed that the mutation rates of HCV genotypes 1b and 6e/6r were 1.61–2.03 × 10−3 and 2.52–2.74 × 10−3 substitutions/site/year, respectively. Non-synonymous substitutions were detected in HVR1, the front layer of the CD81 binding site, and the β-sandwich, but not in the N-terminal region or adjacent to the CD81 binding site. Therefore, we conclude that the CD81 binding site is a promising locus for HCV vaccine development.