Ethnic Identity Development Research Articles

Ethnic-Racial Socialization Messages in the Identity Development of Second-Generation Haitians

This study utilized qualitative inquiry to investigate the role of ethnic-racial socialization messages on ethnic and racial identity development among second-generation Haitians. Nine participants, ranging in age from 15 to 26, took part in individual semistructured qualitative interviews. The data were reviewed for emergent themes, as well as themes present in the ethnic-racial socialization and identity literature. Participants reported receiving positive messages (i.e., Cultural Socialization, Mainstream Socialization, and Preparation for Bias messages) directed at their ethnic groups in the home context and negative messages (i.e., Promotion of Mistrust and discriminatory messages) about their racial group in the home, peer, and societal contexts. In addition, participants who received positive messages directed at their ethnic group reported engaging in identity exploration and endorsing a stable commitment to the identity. Conversely, participants who received negative messages directed at either their ethnic or racial identity reported little to no exploration and exhibited a less stable commitment to that identity. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Exploring Bicultural Experiences: Responding to a Chinese American Young Adult Novel

Reading and responding to ethnic literature that is reflective of one’s own experiences often has significant value for the younger members of the parallel cultures. This paper reports the results of the responses of young adult and adult Asian and Asian American readers to a Chinese American young adult novel set in the 1920’s. The findings suggest that (1) cultural background played a major role in reader response, (2) cross-cultural reading responses revealed readers’ ethnic identity development, especially when dealing with between-world situations, and (3) Chinese Americans continue to experience racial discrimination today. Implications for educators include the importance of critical literacy and the inclusion of multiethnic literature in the K-12 curriculum.

Language Measurement Equivalence of the Ethnic Identity Scale With Mexican American Early Adolescents.

The current study considers methodological challenges in developmental research with linguistically diverse samples of young adolescents. By empirically examining the cross-language measurement equivalence of a measure assessing three components of ethnic identity development (i.e., exploration, resolution, and affirmation) among Mexican American adolescents, the study both assesses the cross-language measurement equivalence of a common measure of ethnic identity and provides an appropriate conceptual and analytical model for researchers needing to evaluate measurement scales translated into multiple languages. Participants are 678 Mexican-origin early adolescents and their mothers. Measures of exploration and resolution achieve the highest levels of equivalence across language versions. The measure of affirmation achieves high levels of equivalence. Results highlight potential ways to correct for any problems of nonequivalence across language versions of the affirmation measure. Suggestions are made for how researchers working with linguistically diverse samples can use the highlighted techniques to evaluate their own translated measures.

Found in Transition: An Acculturation Narrative of Immigration from the Former Soviet Union to Israel

This article presents a personal narrative exemplifying acculturation processes and their theoretical analysis. The author describes the development of his Jewish identity in the Soviet Union, emigration, and adjustment to Israel. The author’s affiliations with his ethnic group, the country of origin, and the country of immigration are described and analyzed as an ever-changing process. The role of family and society in creating a multifaceted ethnic identity is discussed. The validity of the theories on ethnic identity development (Camilleri & Malewska-Peyre, 1997; Phinney, 1990), acculturation (Berry, 1997), and the theories of culture shock and cultural learning (Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001) are tested in light of the acculturation narrative presented here. The author argues that acculturation is a multidimensional process, which relates to the ethnic group, the homeland, and the receiving country. Each of these dimensions has its own dynamic of change in the process of immigration, which depends on the circumstances of the immigrants’ adjustment first in the homeland and after that in the receiving country.

Social Support, Ethnic Identity, and Sexual Identity of Lesbians and Gay Men

Social support, sexual identity development, and ethnic identity development play key roles in individuals’ health and well-being. This study explores social support and identity variables in samples of ethnic minority (N = 297) and White (N = 294) lesbians and gay men. Ethnic minority participants as well as white participants reported generally high levels of satisfaction with social support, strong ethnic and sexual identities, and high levels of outness. Significant differences were found between satisfaction with overall social support and satisfaction with support for same-gender identity for all participants, and significant differences were found between White and ethnic minority participants in levels of outness. Positive relationships were found among coming out, ethnic identity, and satisfaction with support for the ethnic minority participants. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The emergence, structure and development of ethnic identity during childhood: The case of Roma identity

This study investigates the emergence, development and structure of ethnic identity during childhood. Forty Roma children living in Greece aged between 2.8 and 11.9 years answered questions about their awareness/recognition of four aspects of their ethnic identity-namely place of habitation, traditional costumes, the Roma language, and early betrothal of children-their identity and their sense of stability and constancy. The study also investigates how the children feel about the abandonment of those four aspects. The evidence from the current data supports the hypothesis that awareness of ethnic identity emerges before the age of 4. Moreover, this study offers direct empirical evidence of the multidimensionality of ethnic identity. A model of three concentric rings is proposed, extending from a core containing the most highly valued aspects of ethnic identity to the outer annulus that comprises the nonpermanent and nonstable aspects of ethnic identity. The aspects in each annulus differ in terms of the development of the sense of stability and constancy and the feelings associated with loss of the aspects in question. Even the youngest participants considered the aspects in the core to be stable and constant as well as emotionally charged; and even the 11-year-olds did not consider the aspects contained in the outer, more fluid annulus as stable and constant aspects of their ethnic identity. The development of an aspect is determined by what the majority of adults in a society, at a particular time in history, consider to be most important.

Use of Group Counseling to Address Ethnic Identity Development: Application with Adolescents of Mexican Descent

This article provides qualitative outcomes from a group counseling intervention whose goal was to facilitate the ethnic identity development of Mexican-origin youth. Outcomes revealed that participants perceived group participation as meaningful. Themes that emerged from the data included the importance of the relationship to engender change, growth in several aspects of ethnic identity (knowledge of culture, traits, and ethnic pride), and increased relational skills.

Use of Group Counseling to Address Ethnic Identity Development: Application with Adolescents of Mexican Descent

This article provides qualitative outcomes from a group counseling intervention whose goal was to facilitate the ethnic identity development of Mexican-origin youth. Outcomes revealed that participants perceived group participation as meaningful. Themes that emerged from the data included the importance of the relationship to engender change, growth in several aspects of ethnic identity (knowledge of culture, traits, and ethnic pride), and increased relational skills.

Identity-Linked Perceptions of the Police Among African American Juvenile Offenders: A Developmental Perspective

Ethnic identity development can play a role in youths' perceptions and attitudes concerning police, but this process has not been explored in delinquent samples. In this article, we examine how youths' perceptions of police legitimacy and levels of legal cynicism are related to processes of ethnic identity development. Participants were 561 black youth ages 14-18 (12% female) who were adjudicated of a felony or serious misdemeanor. Data were taken from semi-annual interviews conducted over 3 years. Increased ethnic identity exploration was related to positive perceptions of police legitimacy and lower legal cynicism. Higher ethnic identity affirmation predicted higher perceived legitimacy over time, but affirmation was not related to legal cynicism after accounting for psychosocial maturity. This study provides evidence that ethnic identity development operates similarly among high risk youth as in non-delinquent samples, and that it is connected to beliefs that can have implications for juvenile offenders' future compliance with the law.

A Theoretical Look at Biculturalism in Intercountry Adoption

Intercountry adoption has been, and continues to be, a popular method of family formation worldwide, as well as a means of providing homes for children who would otherwise remain parentless. The popularity of this social welfare practice suggests that countless families continue to face the challenges of raising children whose ethnicities derive from two different ethnic backgrounds. Yet, virtually no research exists on the development of a bicultural ethnic identity in intercountry adoption. Instead, research has focused on the importance of birth-culture socialization, or the lack thereof. Faced with too little direct research on the subject, this paper synthesizes and critically reviews literature from the ethnic socialization, biracial, acculturation, and adoption fields. The aim was twofold: (1) extrapolate key elements of the literature that inform on the development of biculturalism in intercountry adoptions; and (2) identify gaps in the literature. Suggestions for future research and practice are offered.

The Immigration Debate and Its Relationship to the Ethnic Identity Development and Well-Being of Latino and White Youth

This study collected data from 422 seventh- and eighth-grade adolescents in 2005 and 391 seventh- and eighth-grade adolescents in 2006 in a medium-sized Midwestern community as part of a larger longitudinal study. The 2006 data collection occurred at the height of the national debate about immigration policy and practice. The fortuitous timing of the data collection allowed the authors to compare the responses of seventh- and eighth-grade Latino adolescents surveyed in 2005 with seventh- and eighth-grade students surveyed in 2006 to examine how the debate related to adolescent ethnic identity development and well-being. Using multiple regression analyses the study found evidence that the debate moved eighth-grade Latino students from the undifferentiated stage of ethnic identity development to the exploration stage. Furthermore, it was found that the debate was related to increased levels of acculturative stress and general stress among first-generation eighth-grade Latino students.

Affiliative ethnic identity: a more elastic link between ethnic ancestry and culture

This paper explains the development of affiliative ethnic identity: an individual identity rooted in knowledge, regular consumption and deployment of an ethnic culture that is unconnected to an individual's ethnic ancestry until that individual regards herself, and may be regarded by others, as an affiliate of a particular ethnic group. While ethnic culture remains identifiably linked to a particular ethnic ancestry, ideological, institutional and demographic changes have elasticized the link between ancestry and culture, making the formation of affiliative ethnic identity possible. Multiculturalism and its accompanying value of diversity have become institutionalized such that individuals regard ethnic difference as something to be recognized and celebrated. The prevalence of ethnic culture in schools, ethnically infused products of popular culture, demographic changes and growing interethnic contact allow individuals, regardless of ethnic ancestry, ready access to multiple ethnic cultures, providing the basis for the formation of affiliative ethnic identity.

Ethnic Identity Development and Acculturation: A Longitudinal Analysis of Mexican-Heritage Youth in the Southwest United States

Utilizing part of the survey data collected for a National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)-funded project from 29 public elementary schools in Phoenix, Arizona (N = 1,600), this study explored the underlying structure of Mexican-heritage youths' ethnic identity and cultural/linguistic orientation. Latent profile and transition analyses identified four distinct orientation profiles endorsed by the early adolescents and their developmental trends across four time points. Most Mexican and Mexican American adolescents endorsed bicultural profiles with developmental trends characterized by widespread stasis and transitions toward greater ethnic identity exploration. Multinominal logistic regression analyses revealed associations between profile endorsement and adolescents' gender, socioeconomic status, parents' birthplace, and visits outside the United States. These findings are discussed in regard to previous findings on acculturation and ethnic identity development. Individuals' adaptation to the immediate local environment is noted as a possible cause of prevalent biculturalism. Limitations and future directions for the research on ethnic identity development and acculturation are also discussed.

Sense of belonging, sense of exclusion, and racial and ethnic identities in Korean transracial adoptees.

Although many Korean transracial adoptees (KTAs) have White European American (WEA) family members, their racial features place them in the minority group. Thus, they navigate the meanings of race and culture from two reference groups: the majority WEA group and the Korean American group. This study explored the processes through which perceptions of group meanings and sense of belonging and exclusion related to the development of racial and ethnic identities. Fourteen adult KTAs in the Northeast participated in interviews analyzed using grounded theory methodology. Results indicated that KTAs' racial and ethnic identities were coconstructed in relation to experiences of belonging and exclusion with their families and both WEA and Korean American groups.

Influence of Age on Transracial Foster Adoptions and Its Relation to Ethnic Identity Development

In the United States, ethnic minorities are disproportionately represented in the foster care system and underrepresented among potential adoptive parents. The need to find permanent homes for foster children has led to an increase in the controversial practice of transracial adoption (TRA), wherein ethnic minority children are placed in adoptive homes with Caucasian parents. While many child welfare scholars and dependency stakeholders support TRA as a positive alternative to foster care, others are concerned that such adoptions may inhibit the ethnic identity development of transracially adopted children. This article documents the large number of ethnic minority children who are adopted through TRA prior to the onset of ethnic identification and how age influences which children are adopted out of foster care. The findings indicate that young ethnic minorities are significantly more likely to be adopted through TRA compared to older children, an effect especially prominent among African Americans. Implications for the child welfare system are discussed.

Examining the Potential of Community‐Based After‐School Programs for Latino Youth

Results are presented from two pilot studies examining the potential influence of community-based after-school programs (ASPs) on regionally diverse Latino youth of varying ages. Study 1 examined relations between dimensions of ASP attendance and content, and ethnic identity development, and self-worth in urban Latino adolescents. In this study, higher ratings of the ASP's emphasis on ethnic socialization were associated with a more developed ethnic identity, while greater intensity of ASP participation and perceptions of ASP quality were associated with higher levels of self-worth. Study 2 examined relations between ASP participation and development of concentration and emotion regulation skills in rural Latino grade-school youth. In this study, youth who regularly attended the ASP demonstrated significantly better concentration and regulation skills than those who did not regularly attend, if they exhibited preexisting concentration and regulation problems. Findings illustrate how ASPs with varying strategies, activities, and assessment tools can be evaluated in the interest of designing future large-scale investigations into ASPs and Latino positive youth development.

The Face of the “Pagan”: Portraits of Religious Deviance on the Medieval Periphery

The Face of the “Pagan”: Portraits of Religious Deviance on the Medieval Periphery

Longitudinal Trajectories of Ethnic Identity During the College Years

The goals of this study were to examine trajectories of change in ethnic identity during the college years and to explore group‐level and individual‐level variations. Participants were 175 diverse college students who completed indices of ethnic identity exploration and commitment, self‐esteem, and domain‐general identity resolution. Multilevel modeling analyses indicated that exploration and commitment continued to increase during the college years. Although there were ethnic differences in initial levels of ethnic identity, the rate of change did not vary by ethnicity. Domain‐general identity was positively associated with exploration and commitment and mediated the association between self‐esteem and commitment. The findings highlight the ongoing development of ethnic identity beyond adolescence and suggest that ethnic identity is part of the larger identity project.

Theories of Human Development that Enhance an Understanding of the College Transition Process

Background/Context Although theories of human development often play a central role in K–12 pedagogical practices, evidence suggests that developmental theories have not been used extensively to understand the college transition process or to develop programs to support students during these transitions. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of the Study The author reviews theories of identity development, racial identity development, and intrinsic motivation to (a) understand how diverse developmental characteristics, stages/tasks, and cultural processes affect the college transition process and (b) identify strategies for preparing diverse students for, and supporting them during, their transitions to college. Research Design Salient theories of human development, particularly from the fields of social and cross-cultural psychology, were identified and critically reviewed. Conclusions/Recommendations The results indicate that in addition to providing students with adequate academic preparation and funding, college faculty and staff must also understand and support college student identity development (including ethnic identity development) and seek to foster intrinsic motivation among students.

Where Am I? Refugee Youth Living in the United States

Based on a qualitative study of fifteen female refugees from Bosnia, this article explores the contribution of critical theories to refugee identity development in the context of the educational setting. The article examines both the theoretical and the practical discussions of ethnic identity development among refugees attending secondary schools in New York. By applying research from the ‘cultural turn’ to the study of refugee education and adaptation, the article challenges the validity of current educational and psychological theories in refugee adaptation, and, by extension, opens up debates around long-held beliefs about refugee ‘adaptation’ to the United States. By examining the role of schools in adaptation, this article shows how the debates objectify the individual, and how the needs of refugee populations can be better met by their teachers and schools even when the students are academically successful. Refugees have experienced life as tenuous and fragile, and they understand the meaning of transience. Hence, they tend to strive to ensure that they have basic, transferable skills and knowledge, which they acquire through education. With a critical theoretical lens, it becomes clear that by incorporating the experiences of students into the classroom, educators not only work to overcome the hidden curriculum that confines and encloses refugees as ‘other,’ but also enrich the classroom for both the refugee students and their classmates.