Development Of Commercial Agriculture Research Articles

The Persistence, Elaboration and Eventual Modification Of Humboldt's View Of The Lowland Tropics

Most travellers who came to Mexico in the nineteenth century entered at Veracruz and proceeded inland through the coastal lowlands along the Jalapa road. While in the lowlands many recalled and elaborated on Humboldt's dictum that although nature was highly promising in this region the lowlanders had been unequal to its challenge. Extraneous intervention would be necessary for the development of commercial agriculture, the economic optimum. Such widely accepted evaluations influenced, and prejudiced, the planning of tropical lowland development well into the second half of the twentieth century. In recent years, amid the litter of failed projects, traditional and even Pre-Hispanic adaptations and techniques have been rediscovered by Mexican as well as foreign observers. It is clear now that there was more wisdom in traditional lowland agricultural practice than was expected.

From “Gardens” to “Plantations”: Market Economy and Commercial Agricultural Development in Shaanbei, China

Recent development of commercial agriculture in China can be illustrated by the diffusion of an orchard operation, “garden-plantation “, in northern Shaanxi Province (Shaanbei). Conceived in traditional family gardens, this new system has become a leading commercial operation and has resulted in improvements of both ecological and economic conditions. Empirical findings indicate that the emerging market economy has been a critical force behind the rapid diffusion and sustainable potentials of the garden-plantation system. This study contributes to the theories of sustainable growth and has policy implications for regional development.

LaSelva: Ecology and Natural History of a Neotropical Rainforest.

Selva, a nature reserve and field station in Costa Rica, is one of the most intensively studied and best-understood tropical field sites in the world. For over 30 years, has been a major focus of research on rainforest ecology, flora and fauna. This volume provides a comprehensive review of this research, covering Selva's geographical history and physical setting, its plant and animal life, and agricultural development and land use. Drawing together a wealth of information, La Selva offers a substantive treatment of the ecology of a rainforest. Part 1 summarizes research on the physical setting and environment of the rainforest, as well as the history of the research station. Some chapters in this part focus on climate, geomorphology and aquatic systems, while others look at soils, nutrient acquisition and cycles of energy. Part 2 synthesizes what is known about the plant community. It begins with chapters on vegetation types and plant diversity, and also explores plant demography, spatial patterns of trees, and the impact of treefall gaps on forest structure and dynamics. Other chapters address plant physiological ecology, as well as plant reproductive systems. Part 3 covers the animal community, summarizing information on the six best-known animal taxa of the region: fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and butterflies. This part includes an overview of faunal studies at and a chapter on animal population biology, which examines animal demography and abundance, and interactions between predators and prey. Part 4 addresses interactions between plants and animals and the effects of these interactions on species diversity. Part 5 considers the impact of land use and agricultural development on and other areas of Costa Rica. One chapter examines land colonization and conservation in Sarapiqui, another covers subsistence and commercial agricultural development in the Atlantic lowlands region, and a third looks at the forest industry in north-eastern Costa Rica. This part also assesses the role and research priorities of Selva. La Selva provides an introduction to tropical ecology for students and researchers at Selva, a major source of comparative information for biologists working in other tropical areas, and a resource for conservationists.

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL CHANGE: A CASE STUDY OF AGRICULTURAL COMMERCIALIZATION IN THE COMMUNAL AREAS OF SOUTH AFRICA

This paper analyses the causes and consequences of agricultural change in two regions of the former Bophuthatswana homeland of South Africa. The paper identifies a number of circumstances which provided the set of comprehensive support services which are essential for the development of commercial agriculture, namely the availability of capital; appropriate biological and mechanical technology and the experience to use it; suitable pricing policies and marketing opportunities. The changing rural-urban wage differential; and the demise of traditional institutions as well as the drought of the early 1980s were important factors in the changes described. An important conclusions is that no single factor caused the development of a commercial agriculture, but that a package of prime movers was necessary. The broad consequences of the transformation in agriculture has significance for both those with agricultural resources, as well as those without. One of the most important consequences of the change is the c...

Agrarian Change and Gender Relations in South‐east Iran

ABSTRACTThis article looks at some of the recent cross‐disciplinary debates on the nature of the household, and in particular the need to juxtapose intrahousehold gender relations against the wider socio‐economic context within which households are embedded. It places particular emphasis on the development of market forces, seen as a neglected theme in research on gender relations in rural Iran. Drawing on village‐level fieldwork, the ‘conjugal contracts' in two neighbouring districts of the Iranian province of Kerman are located within the wider network of socio‐economic relations in which both men and women are involved, taking into account the varied development of commercial agriculture, as well as the impact of state policies and the changing balance of social forces. Although these developments account for some of the observed differences in conjugal relations between the two districts, shared notions of ‘household unity’ and ‘wifely duty’ are also highlighted as critical factors shaping the conduct of husband and wife in ways that are comparable across the two districts. The pressures that are brought upon men and women with the development of market forces in one of the districts, while making women relatively more vulnerable in certain respects, have enhanced their assertive‐ness within marriage — often in defiance of deeply‐embedded ideologies that subsume their interests to those of their households.

Nutritional, functional, and acceptability characteristics retro grain products: Kamut

Retro grains are under-utilized grains which have been largely by-passed in the development of commercial agriculture but which may have desirable nutritional, palatability and/or agronomic characteristics either for breeding programs for improvement of modern grains or for specialized markets. Kamut flour has recently become available in American stores. Kamut is the registered name for Triticum polonicum; thus, is a relative of both modern common wheat (Triticum aestivum) and duram wheat (Triticum durum). Kamut flour products are reputed to be tolerated by about 70% of people with common wheat flour allergies. In trials conducted in this laboratory, acceptability of products containing whole ground kamut flour were compared against products containing 70% extracted red wheat flour and whole ground red wheat flour. Products investigated included yeast bread, cookies, pasta, quick bread, and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. Whole ground kamut flour products tended to have a golden yellow color and a distinctive flavor. In general, whole ground kamut flour products yielded better palatability scores than did whole ground red wheat flour but poorer scores than did the extracted red wheat flour products. Functionality tests yielded directionally similar results to the palatability scores. Concentrations of selected minerals, protein, and fat in the three flours were analyzed. (U.S.D.A. C.S.R.S. Regional Research Project W-143)

Agro-exports and the peasantry in the agrarian reforms of El Salvador and Nicaragua

The post-1979 agrarian reforms in El Salvador and Nicaragua were constrained by the legacy of the previous pattern of commercial agricultural development, which left social and economic biases against peasant producers in favor of capital-intensive agro-export enterprises. Between 1979 and 1984, both governments transferred only limited amounts of land to poor rural households, while preserving the medium-sized agro-export estates. After 1984, the Sandinistas moved the Nicaraguan reform in an increasingly pro-peasant direction in response to the weaknesses of earlier reform policies, while the Salvadoran government was not able to address those weaknesses and the Salvadoran reform stagnated.

Cotton Fields No More: Southern Agriculture, 1865-1980

No general history of southern farming since the end of slavery has been published until now. For the first time, Gilbert C. Fite has drawn together the many threads that make up commercial agricultural development in the eleven states of the old Confederacy, to explain why agricultural change was so slow in the South, and then to show how the agents of change worked after 1933 to destroy the old and produce a new agriculture.Fite traces the decline and departure of King as the hard taskmaster of the region, and the replacement of cotton by a somewhat more democratically rewarding group of farm products: poultry, cattle, swine; soybeans; citrus and other fruits; vegetables; rice; dairy products; and forest products. He shows how such crop changes were related to other developments, such as the rise of a capital base in the South, mainly after World War II; technological innovation in farming equipment; and urbanization and regional population shifts.Based largely upon primary sources, Cotton Fields No More will become the standard work on post-Civil War agriculture in the South. It will be welcomed by students of the American South and of United States agriculture, economic, and social history.

British Trading Companies and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Malaysia

British Trading Companies and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Malaysia

Land and Labour in Latin America: Essays on the Development of Agrarian Capitalism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.

List of tables List of figures List of maps Acknowledgements 1. Introduction: patterns of agrarian capitalism in Latin America Part I. The transition from traditional hacienda to capitalist estate 2. Hacienda profits and tenant farming in the Mexican Bajio, 1700-1860 3. Landlord, labourer and tenant in San Luis Potosi, northern Mexico, 1822-1910 4. Land and labour in rural Chile, 1850-1935 5. The development of the Chilean hacienda system, 1850-1973 6. Relations of production in Andean haciendas: Peru 7. The formation of the coffee estate in nineteenth-century Costa Rica Part II: The development of a plantation economy with labour recruitment from highland peasant communities 8. The integration of the highland peasantry into the sugar cane economy of northern Argentina, 1930-43 9. The social and economic consequences of modernisation in the Peruvian sugar industry, 1870-1930 10. The dynamics of Indian peasant society and migration to coastal plantations in central Peru 11. A Colombian coffee estate: Santa Barbara, Cundinamarca, 1870-1912 Part III. The development of commercial agriculture using European immigrant labour 12. The coffee colono of Sao Paulo, Brazil: migration and mobility, 1880-1930 13. The cereal boom and changes in the social and political structure of Santa Fe, Argentina, 1870-95 Part IV. The transition from slave plantation to capitalist plantation 14. The consequences of modernisation fro Brazil's sugar plantations in the nineteenth century 15. From bangue to usina: social aspects of growth and modernisation in the sugar industry of Pernambuco, Brazil, 1850-1920 16. The evolution of rural wage labour in the Cauca Valley of Colombia, 1700-1970 17. The post-emancipation origins of the relationships between the estates and the peasantry in Trinidad Part V. Postscript 18. Latin American 'landlords' and 'peasants' and the outer world during the national period 19. Abstracts of other papers Glossary Weights and measures Notes on contributors Indexes.

Bases for Development of Commercial Agriculture in West Sumatra

Bases for Development of Commercial Agriculture in West Sumatra

The Development of Commercial Agriculture in the Philippines

The Development of Commercial Agriculture in the Philippines

Le développement de l'agriculture commerciale dans la presqu'île malaise avant 1908

The development of commercial agriculture in the Malayan peninsula prior to 1908 In the Malayan peninsula, scantily populated and hardly at all exploited in the 19 th century, Chinese immigrants from the south of China and European settlers created plantations upon which each group has left its distinctive mark. The Chinese entered Malaya via the British settlements of Penang, Malacca and Singapore. Having come to Malaya with the purpose of returning to their native country once they had made their fortunes, they raised crops capable of producing quickly and for which only a minimum of capital investment was required : cassava, pepper. They engaged in an itinerant method of commercial agriculture, abandoning the land as soon as its fertility began to decline. Thanks to a very strong economic organization (the Kongsi system was employed), the Chinese plantations experienced great prosperity. At the beginning of the 20 th century, however, and under the influence of British legislation which sought to protect the soil, and also because of the increased growing of rubber trees, this type of agriculture commenced to expire. The European planters experienced less success than did the Chinese in the 19 th century : ignorance of the environment, lack of labor, choice of crops requiring a long growth period (clove, nutmeg) dispersion of efforts and amateurism of the planters were the main causes. Their condition changed at the end of the 19 th century with the British seizure of the Malayan states and the introduction of rubber growing. The colonial authorities encouraged the settlement of European colonists (land concessions, loans from public funds) and the development of rubber plantations (Indian Tamoul labor was used). But the phenomenal growth of rubber production (2,000 hectares planted in 1900, 100,000 in 1908) was certainly due in large part to the appearance of numerous private companies and the aid given by the London money markets.

The Development of Commercial Agriculture in the Indo-China Peninsular

The Development of Commercial Agriculture in the Indo-China Peninsular

FORMING PROCESS OF DAIRY REGION IN THE SOUTHEASTERN GUNMA PREFECTURE

In this paper the auther has analysed the forming process of dairy region from the point of historical development of milk industry, which includes such businesses as the milker, milk bottling plant and dairy farming. With the development of commercial agriculture, six stages of milk industry were classified in this region as follows. First stage (1870-4900); The milk industry composed of the milkers only. These milkers were engaged in keeping dairy cattles, bottling and selling milk in a small scale. As dairy cattle husbandry was one of the attractive businesses for investment in this stage, the samurais, former warrior class before Meiji restoration, had established Akagi Bokujo by obtaining a fund from the government in 1875. Second stage (1901-1920); The milkers were still the core of the milk industry, but with the development of local society, the difference in milker's scale became greater between city and rural areas. The transference of dairy cattles from the milkers to farmers means the primitive differentiation of milk industry. The farmers who kept dairy cattles Tended these to the milkers. Third stage (1921-1938); Dairy farming was started with the establishment of milking association in rural areas. The milking association of farmers were engaged in processing and selling milk, but most of these failed in selling milk with competition of the milkers and unbalance of milk production and demand. Changing of milk processing methods, the milkers were classified into two groups. One group established the milkplant to gather milk from milking association, the other borrowed dairy cattles from farmers like as second stage. Fourth stage (1939-1947); A local milk manufacturing plant was established with the development of dairy farming. Advancing the world war II, the milk industry was controlled in regional criteria so that milk was gathered two new incorporated plants at Maebashi and Isesaki. Thus milkshed of these plants expanded from local area to regional area. Fifth stage (1948-1954); With the solution of old regulation systems after end of the war and the increasing popularity of dairy farming among farmers, the dairying co-operatives were established in coring the milking association. Then regional milkshed was divided with the establishment of meadiam extra capital of fluid milk distributors. On the other hand the milkers converted to small milk bottling plants. Sixth stage (after 1955); Appointing the intensive dairy region, this region was included in Tokyo metropolitan milkshed with the advancement of big milk manufacturing capitals. In this consequence large herding of dairy cattles were progressed in full-time farmers. The milkers were directed two ways. One was school milk bottling in combination of local society, the other was milk wholesaler or retailer belonging to big milk distributors. In sixth stage this dairy region has been re-formed and grasped with the monopolistic milk manufacturing capitals ; Advancement of big milk manufacturing capitals with expansion of Tokyo milkshed has been developing large herding of dairy cattles. Then milk production in dairy farms has taken most significant part in combining compound management. At the same time inter-farm combination has occured in coring dairy farms with specialization of f arm-ing in this region.

静岡県に於ける蜜柑栽培地域の概況

Small scale management of farming land is one of the characteristics of Japannese agriculture. While it is generally attributed to the very high density of agricultural population, it can be more fully explained by studying the historical development of the farming system.Thus the tendency of our farms to become smaller in size must be considered both geographically and historically. The focus of this study is laid on the way of local intensification of commercial agriculture, as indicated by the change in land utilization and the change of the class-structure of farmers.The author studied the mandarin orange cultivation areas in Shizuoka prefecture, Which is the largest producer of the fruit. After field study and reference to records and statistics of the site and the acreage of orchards and of the planting and managing practices, the following conclusions were reached.(1) It was during the social and economic change following the Meiji revolution that orange cultivation in the district was commercialized.(2) Just as the center of the orange production moved from other disticts to Shizuoka historically, its central area continued moving within the prefecture.(3) In general, majority of the producers are tenant farmers who opened orchards on hillsides by cutting forests. However, in some newly developing areas landowners are also important as producers.(4) While landlords and peasants were the two conflicting forces contributing to the development of commercial agriculture in Japan, the latter was the dominant agent in modernizing orange cultivation in the prefecture.

America's Migration Treaties During World War II

self-sufficient in manpower. Since the establishment of the original colonies, the domestic supply of labor has been augmented in one way or another by immigrant workers. Until the First World War the European immigrant was a major source of additional manpower, and migratory trends were approximately responsive to the American labor market.1 Despite many private and largely exploitative ventures in the active recruitment of immigrant workers, it was not until the United States entered World War II that any largescale and governmentally sponsored arrangement was made for securing foreign workers to bolster American productive manpower. Following the virtual cessation of European immigration for settlement, a consequence of the First World War confirmed by the stringent Immigration Act of 1924, immigrant workers came almost entirely from the Western Hemisphere and for a temporary period. It was especially during the interwar years that the temporary or permanent immigration of Mexican workers figured prominently in the development of commercial agriculture in the southwest. As the immigration quotas did not apply to the American continents, many Mexicans were able to meet the qualitative provisions of the immigration laws

The Landslide Near Sargent, California

Notes on Population Changes in the Coast Ranges of Northern California By J. O. BROEK University of California, Berkeley In the Coast Ranges of Northern California population growth has been far from uniform. The valley lands have all increased, but since about 1900 many of the rugged portions have decreased or at least stagnated . This paper is a preliminary report on an investigation of this situation , and considers mainly Napa and Sonoma Counties, where most of the field work has been done. Factors contributing to the emigration from the hill lands are : 1.The decline of the lumber industry , as in West Sonoma and South Mendocino Counties. 2.The decline of quicksilver mining in the Mount St. Helena area. 3.The relative decrease of economic opportunity in tne hill lands as compared to the rapid development of commercial agriculture in the lowlands. 4.The general rise in the standard of living, which is more and more difficult to realize. The small scale farmer, and especially the younger people are thus moving out. These negative factors have been— at least partly—counterbalanced by other trends : a. The increasing utilization of the hill lands as recreation areas, particularly in the southern part of the Coast Ranges, due to the proximity -of the Bay Metropolitan Area. b.The influx of retired people who have purchased homes in the hills. c.The establishment of various kinds of institutions (schools, hospitals, Veteran's Plome). This development also has increased the sources of income for other population groups who supply food or perform services. Associated with these changes is a remarkable age composition—a high concentration of the group 65 years and over, and a very small percentage of those 5 years and under (lower than the average for urban population in California). Altogether, there is taking place a shift in the function of the mountains : primary production (agriculture, lumbering, mining) is being replace:! by a secondary function, that of serving the lowlands and the Bay Metropolitan Area for recreation and residential settlement. Also, the ranges are becoming increasingly significant as watersheds for the lowlands. Reforestation and strict control of grazing are desirable as necessary adaptations of the hill lands to new conditions . *This paper will appear in full in the Geographical Review. The Landslide Near Sargent, California By WALTER A. HACKER San Francisco State College Early in March this year there oc- indebted to both ciirred a major mass-movement near Sargent, San Benito County, California . Due to its unusual size and its vicinity to a vital communivation line the feature received wide publicity as the "walking mountain ofGilroy." 1 visited the locality twice, in the comand of Edwin Thomas who recently finished a study on soil slips, and I am of them for contribution of observations. The mass-movement occurred on the north side of an isolated hill which separates the broad valley of the lower San Benito River in the South from the Santa Clara Valley in the North. Qn the San Bautista quadrangle of the Topographic Map this elevation is named "Lomerias Muer-, (38) tas". It represents orographically a southeastern spur of the Santa Cruz Mountains which is separated from the main chain by the canyon of the Pajaro River. The highest elevation in the "Lomerias Muertas" is 1178 feet, a little more than 1000 feet above the floor of the Santa Clara Valley. According to the recently published "Geologic Map of California 1 :500.000" this isolated spur consists of Middle and Lower Pliocene marine sediments which in other localities are known as Fernando, Merced, San Diego , Wildcat series, Ferndale sandstone and others. In the "Lomerias Muertas" it is represented by soft and partly argillaceous sandstones which are interbedded with some layers of poorly cemented limestone conglomerates , thin layers of sandy shales, knses of clay and thin seams of brown coal. The dip of the strata as it is exposed in the excavated "cirque" in the upper part of the slump is about •20° and towards S 30° E. Since a direct connection has been supposed, I should like to mention that the St. Andreas fault line is about 3 miles to the southwest of the landslide, and that no earthquake...