Development Of Commercial Agriculture Research Articles

Employment Equity in the Poultry Value Chain of Commercial Agricultural Development Project in Enugu State, Nigeria

The study examined employment equity among actors in the poultry value chain of the Commercial Agricultural Development Project (CADP) in Enugu State. Seventy-one core actors (service providers, producers, processors and marketers) in the poultry value chain were randomly selected for the study. Data were collected using a structured interview schedule. Data were analysed using percentages, charts and mean scores. Results show that the mean number of males and females employed by the producers on a full-time basis was two persons each for the 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015 & 2016 production seasons. In 2010, the mean monthly payments for males and females employed by the producers on a full-time basis were ₦8,171.43 and ₦8,466.67, respectively. The majority (62.5%) of the producers were poor. Service providers’ perceived benefit of the poultry value chain includes employment creation (=2.00) while processors indicated sustainability of agricultural projects (=3.00). The poultry value chain approach of CADP was sensitive in their employment structure and was beneficial in terms of poverty eradication through job creation. The government should support the actors in the poultry value chain financially specifically the producers through the provision of credit facilities such as loans to bring about positive change in their wealth status.

Characterization of the natural resource potential of the agricultural zone of the Krasnoyarsk territory

The aim of the study was to determine the natural resource potential of the agricultural territories in the agricultural regions of the Krasnoyarsk Territory and to investigate the fundamental characteristics of climatic conditions. Location and time of the study. The study utilized multi-year data (from 1978 to 2020) from 22 meteorological stations located in the natural districts of the Krasnoyarsk Territory to analyze climatic conditions. Methods. A georesource database was used to assess the natural resource potential (NRP), including information about soils, agroclimatic parameters, and their impact on agricultural crops. Soils and climatic parameters were ranked on a scale of 5 to 100. The NRP assessment was categorized as follows (points): 1–20 – low; 21–40 – below average; 41–60 – average; 61–80 – above average; 81–100 – high. Climatic conditions were analyzed based on multi-year data from meteorological stations in different natural regions of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, using trend analysis and data smoothing methods to identify dynamics. Results. The natural resource potential values vary from 32.5 points for the northern forest-steppe podzolic soils in the Kansk Natural District to 62.5 points for chernozems (black soils) in the northern forest-steppe of the South Minusinsk Natural District. Weighted average NRP values for the agricultural territories of the Krasnoyarsk Krai increase in the following sequence (points): subtaiga (38.0) – Kansk Natural District (45.4) –Krasnoyarsk Natural District (46.3) – Achinsk-Bogotol Natural District (47.4) – Chulymo-Yenisei Natural District (47.8) – Nazarovo Natural District (49.4) – South Minusinsk Natural District (54.3). Conclusions. Climate warming, accompanied by significant increases in summer and winter precipitation, milder winters, and prolonged growing seasons favorable for agricultural crops and varieties, will have a positive impact on the NRP of the region's agrolandscapes, promoting the development of commercial agriculture, especially in the forest-steppe zone. The range of agricultural crops and varieties may expand. Cultivating winter and hard wheat varieties is expected to become more effective. Improved natural conditions will contribute to bringing long abandoned lands into agricultural production. Changes in soil regimes and properties will lead to the transformation of agricultural crop cultivation technologies.

Wild sweet cherry, strawberry and bilberry as underestimated sources of natural colorants and bioactive compounds with functional properties

Wild edible fruits, neglected by the development of commercial agriculture, have recently aroused as a good source of natural colorants and bioactive compounds. These novel uses could cover the recent demand for healthier foods with functional properties. Prunus avium, Fragaria vesca and Vaccinium myrtillus wild fruits were characterized by individual anthocyanin profile and color CIELAB parameters, as well as phenolic fraction. In addition, some bioactivities were evaluated. In P. avium cyanidin-O-deoxyhexosyl-pentoside was the representative anthocyanin, in F. vesca pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside and in V. myrtillus delphinidin-O-hexoside. The three wild edible fruits showed interesting antioxidant activity especially in OxHLIA assays. V. myrtillus was the fruit with the best results for the bacterial growth inhibition, while F. vesca with better fungal growth inhibition. These results evidenced the richness of these wild fruits in bioactive compounds and pigments with antioxidant capacity, therefore, their potential use as natural colorants for healthier food products design.

Peranan Jabatan Pertanian dan Diversiti Pertanian Kolonial di Tanah Melayu, 1920-1938 (Role of Agriculture Department and Colonial Agriculture Diversity In Malaya, 1920-1938)

After the First World War, the British needed a cheap supply of raw materials to support the mother country’s industry sector keeps operating. Hence, the imperial economic policy was implemented in the colonies which caused the colonial economic activities to be subordinated to the metropolitan. Following this development, this article analyses the form of metropolitan control over Malaya’s agricultural sector through the role played by the Department of Agriculture. The impact of this control is assessed based on the diversity of colonial agriculture that then leads to the development of tropical crops besides rubber. The development of oil palm, coconut and tea as commercial crops is influenced by high demand in the empire market, especially in London. This study uses CO 717 and 576 records to prove metropolitan control over the Department of Agriculture’s operations, while the Federated Malay States (FMS) report is used to analyse the impact of colonial agricultural diversity in Malaya. This study found that colonial agricultural diversity is more dominant in the FMS which is the major exporter of tropical commodities from Malaya. For this reason, the British only combined the administration of the FMS’ Agriculture Department with the Straits Settlements, whereas the Unfederated Malay States only received the services of the Department of Agriculture from the FMS. Although the Department of Agriculture plays a significant role in carrying out agriculture research, the outcome of the development of commercial agriculture was only dominated by European planters.

Interregional Differences in Agricultural Development across Circumpolar Canada

In response to the circumpolar region’s high levels of food insecurity, many Canadian communities have identified the development of local agriculture as a means to resolve the issue. Agricultural development is varied across the circumpolar region, an area which includes Yukon, the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik (Quebec), and Nunatsiavut (Newfoundland and Labrador). This review explores the interregional differences in circumpolar agriculture, their historical development, and their relationship to prevailing biophysical, socioeconomic, and political conditions. Drawing upon local food strategies and literature pertaining to current agricultural initiatives, we discuss the future direction of circumpolar agriculture in Canada. Yukon and the Northwest Territories are the most agriculturally developed subregions of circumpolar Canada, and their territorial governments support the development of commercial agriculture. In Nunavut, Nunavik, and Nunatsiavut, relatively few agricultural initiatives are underway although local efforts have been made to establish community gardens or greenhouses and improve access to fresh commodities through subsidization of imported goods. Because of variability in biophysical, social, institutional, and political environments, strategies for food production would be most effective if tailored to each subregion. The continued development of agriculturally favorable policies and certified processing facilities in Yukon and the Northwest Territories could improve market access, both locally and out-of-territory. The eastern subregions (Nunavut, Nunavik, and Nunatsiavut) seem more inclined towards small, community-driven projects; these initiatives could be promoted to encourage community involvement for their long-term sustainability. Most studies on circumpolar agriculture have focused on the biophysical and social challenges; the region would benefit from additional research into the institutional and political barriers to agricultural development.

Determinants of Nutritional Differences in Mediterranean Rural Spain, 1840–1965 Birth Cohorts: A Comparison between Irrigated and Dry Farming Agriculture

AbstractAnthropometric studies have given much attention to the impact of industrialization and urbanization on the biological standards of living of urban populations. Instead, we know less about the evolution of height and the disparities within the rural world and how they have changed during the modern economic growth process. This article analyzes the evolution and the determining factors that would explain the inequality of the biological welfare of a group of rural populations in Mediterranean Spain. Using a database of the heights of military conscripts (N = 146,041) of the study area, a comparison is made of the biological well-being of the cohorts born between 1840 and 1965 in different rural environments (irrigated vs. dry farming). The results show that the recruits residing in irrigated areas were taller than those in dry farming areas and that the nutritional differences were greater among the latter. The advantage of the heights in irrigated areas widened with the development of commercial agriculture at the end of the nineteenth century and, although it began to reduce from the early decades of the twentieth century, the anthropometric gap persisted throughout the period analyzed. The data also suggest that the distribution of income was also more unequal in the dry farming areas, where the diet was less varied and rich than in the irrigated areas. This situation could be largely explained by the existence of low productivity agriculture in these dry farming areas, among other possible factors.

Research on the Economic History of Dali in the Late Ming Dynasty under the Background of Social Transformation

The Ming dynasty was one of the most prosperous dynasties in ancient China and one of the most distinctive and important periods in the history of Chinese feudal society. The late Ming dynasty was an important turning point in social and economic development. In the context of social transformation, the development of commercial agriculture caused structural changes in the agricultural economy and rural society; the prosperity of regional commercial trade, the growth of merchant power and the formation of inter-regional market networks created a new stage in the development of regional commerce. This paper examines the economic development of the Dali region in the late Ming dynasty from a regional perspective against the backdrop of social transformations, taking into account the economic development of the region in the late Ming dynasty in terms of factor inputs and outputs of economic activities, foreign trade and commercial development, and finance and finance. The findings of this paper can provide a reference for deepening the study of regional economic history and promoting regional economic development.

Agricultural commercialisation, poverty reduction and pro-poor growth: evidence from commercial agricultural development project in Nigeria

Commercial Agriculture Development is widely seen as a pathway to agriculture commercialization, poverty reduction and pro-poor growth in developing economies. Using a counterfactual approach, this study assessed the impact of the Commercial Agricultural Development Project (CADP) in Nigeria on poverty status of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries; determine its impact on commercialization of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries and ascertain the pro-poor impact of the Project. Data from 1199 households comprising 678 beneficiaries and 521 non-beneficiaries were used for analysis. Propensity score matching was used to select comparable observations which reduced the sample size to 1142 observations: 655 beneficiaries, 487 non-beneficiaries. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, propensity score matching technique, Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) poverty measures, Average Treatment effect on the Treated (ATT) and Poverty equivalent growth rate (PEGR) pro-poor measure. FGT poverty indices were lower for CADP Beneficiaries than the non-beneficiaries. The impact of the CADP on poverty using the income of beneficiaries as proxy showed that those who participated in CADP had their income increased by N446,073.89 ($ 1,239.09) and were better off in terms of their welfare compared to those who did not participate in the program. For the impact on commercialization, the programme led to a statistically significant increase in the commercialization index of beneficiaries. Also the PEGR for non-beneficiaries was higher than the actual growth rate while that of beneficiaries was less than the actual growth rate implying that CADP was not pro-poor. The study concludes that even though the CADP impacted the poverty level of beneficiaries positively, it was not pro-poor hence there is a need to ensure that the poor are effectively targeted in designing development intervention programmes.

Livelihoods and coping strategies of local communities on previous customary land in limbo of commercial agricultural development: Lessons from the farm block program in Zambia

The surge in large-scale land acquisitions (LSLAs) has captured the attention of activists, development practitioners, policy makers and academics. Supported for food security, biofuels, financial investments, eco-tourism etc., opponents of LSLAs raise concerns regarding the fate of local communities suffering from (potential) land dispossession and involuntary displacements, environmental degradation, diminished local food security and sovereignty and casualisation of farm workers. Scholarly efforts to understand socio-economic and environmental impacts of LSLAs grapple with: (i) methodological challenges related to lack of (reliable) baseline data; and (ii) implementation of LSLA deals - LSLAs can be complex operations; cancelled or abandoned, and reshaped by diverse biophysical, socio-cultural and political landscapes in which they unfold. Few attempts have been made to understand how local communities cope with failed LSLA deals. Addressing this gap, this paper uses participatory rural appraisal methods to examine coping strategies of local communities in Nansanga farm block, a government of Zambia-led LSLA program. Overall, our fieldwork shows Nansanga is a deal in limbo of development: state-funded infrastructure has crumbled, and many private investors have not developed the land they bought. Instead, mining and tobacco companies have emerged as important economic players, filling the development vacuum created by the government’s absence in Nansanga. As immigration for casual mining jobs increases, there is land dispossession in some places, and curtailed access to dambos that used to be communal under customary land tenure. Our findings question the possibility of LSLA deals to contribute to wealth creation for local people. Our findings suggest pre-existing socio-economic status and household labour are key to understanding coping strategies of local people in Nansanga. High wealth households are more likely to take advantage of emerging opportunities from (failed) LSLA deals than low wealth households. Finally, LSLA deals transform resource use and therefore livelihoods - reinforcing pre-existing socio-economic community conditions.

Actors’ Satisfaction with Poultry Value Chain Approach of the Commercial Agricultural Development Project in Enugu State, Nigeria

The study ascertained actors’ perception of the poultry value chain approach of the Commercial Agricultural Development Project (CADP) in Enugu State, Nigeria. Seventy-one poultry value chain (PVC) actors constituted the sample for the study. Data were analysed using percentages, charts and mean scores. Results show that all (100%) the service providers provided information on how to use drugs and vaccines. The proportion of producers that reared broiler in 2010 were 51% which attained a peak level of 55.8% in 2011 and slightly declined thereafter, while 49% of them reared layers in 2010, which declined to 44.2% in 2011 and continued with an undulating trend. Generally, the actors perceived the poultry value chain approach of CADP satisfactory. The service providers and producers were satisfied with linkage with other actors in the poultry value chain ( x̄=2.50) while the processors were satisfied with frequency of contact with facilitators ( x̄=3.00). Major constraints to the effective performance of the PVC actors identified by the producers include; high cost of accessing information from web ( x̄=4.00). Also, processors’ and marketers perceived constraints were lack of trust in communicating with other actors ( x̄=2.50) and low literacy level of actors (x̄ =3.00), respectively. Government and donor agencies should ensure timely supply of inputs for actors at the different value chain segments to ensure efficient and productive chain activity.Keywords: CADP, extension service, poultry, value chain actors.

EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT (YCAD) PROGRAMME AMONG RURAL YOUTH IN EKITI STATE, NIGERIA

The study described the socio-economic characteristics of the beneficiaries of the Youth Commercial Agricultural Development (YCAD) Programme in Ekiti State, Nigeria.Specifically, it identified type of enterprises in YCAD programme and isolated the factors influencing the effectiveness of the programme in the state. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select 174 beneficiaries/respondents for the study. A validated interview schedule was used to collect data which were summarised with percentages, means and standard deviation while chi-square and correlation were used to draw inferences. Also, factor analysis was used to isolate factors influencing the programme effectiveness. Results showed that the mean age of respondents was 37±5years, mean household size was 5±2 persons, mean year of formal education was 15±2 years and mean monthly income was ₦41,000±23,000. Results, also, showed that arable crop enterprises (47.7%) and poultry (27%) were the most preferred enterprises by the beneficiaries in the study area followed by tree crops enterprise (12.6%) and aquaculture (12.6%)respectively. In addition, five crucial factors such as Institutional factor (26.672%), Personnel factor (16.345%), Socio-economicfactor (10.626%), Experience factor (9.243%) and Constraints factor (7.506%) were isolated. Further results showed that household size (r = 0.224; p ≤ 0.01) and years of formal education (r = 0.211; p ≤ 0.01) had positive and significant relationship with effectiveness of the YCAD programme. It was concluded from the study that YCAD was highly effective in employment generation, provision of incentives and creation of market for agricultural produce among the beneficiaries.

Perception and performance of poultry farmer Commodity Interest Groups (CIGS) on the Commercial Agricultural Development Project (CADP) in Enugu State, Nigeria

RE: WITHDRAWAL OF PUBLISHED ARTICLEENTITLE: “PERCEPTION AND PERFORMANCE OF POULTRY FARMER COMMODITY INTEREST GROUPS (CIGS) ON THE COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (CADP) IN ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA.” PUBLISHED IN GLOBAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES VOL. 17, P. 85-89 (2018).I attach herewith letter from the authors of the above article requesting that their article be withdrawn because of argument on position. The study was conducted to assess the perception and performance of poultry farmer commodity interest groups on the Commercial Agricultural Development Project (CADP) in Enugu State, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to identify the factors that affected the perception of poultry farmer farmer commodity interest groups (CIGs) on the CADP in the state and compare the performance of poultry farmer CIGs in terms of gross margin and after CADP. Multistage random sampling technique was employed in the selection of 150 poultry CIGS.The result of the Probit analysis showed that the coefficients for age, level of education, income of the farmers and access to information by farmers were all positive correlated, while that for political connection in the state was negatively correlated to the perception of the poultry farmers CIGs on CADP. The total variable cost (TVC) of CIGs with financial grant increased from ₦3,493,110 to ₦5,570,300. With financial grant, total revenue more than doubled; without financial grant it was ₦10,788,448, and with financial grant, ₦22,785,219. The Gross Margin also had a significant increase from ₦7,295,338 without financial grant, to ₦17,214,919 With financial grant. The following recommendations were proffered: CADP should increase matching-grant on input, especially on feed which constitute the major cost, CADP’s grants should be awarded to qualified farmers within the shortest possible time and CIG groups interested in participation in the project should be given relevant training.Keywords: Poultry Farmers, Commercial Agriculture, Interest Groups, Financial Grant, Gross Margin

‘A War of Man Against Locust’! Locust Invasions and Anti-locust Campaigns in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, 1918–1940s

This article traces the scourge of locust plagues in the Salisbury district of Southern Rhodesia, and examines state and settler strategies to combat successive outbreaks between 1918 and 1951. Focusing on the Red and Brown migratory locust, we explore the origins and extent of locust recurrent plagues, and examine the efficacy of the campaigns that were embarked on to mitigate the impact of the scourge. Although the plagues presented Southern Rhodesia with a difficult challenge to its fledgling agricultural sector, this subject has escaped the attention of historians, with most narratives focusing on undercapitalisation, the impact of environmental challenges and the role of the colonial state in general in the development of commercial agriculture. Thus, by exploring natural disasters, we seek to fill this gaping lacunae in the agrarian historiography of colonial Zimbabwe. Employing primary data, we argue that, to the extent that the campaigns did not involve other countries in the Southern African region, the campaigns carried out during the period under review fell short on mitigating the impact of locust scourge in the country. It was only after the International Red Locust Services took a well-coordinated campaign that the locust scourge was brought under control.

English

Poultry has been identified by the World Bank funded Commercial Agricultural Development Program (CADP) as a value chain in the agricultural sector of Enugu State and thus has the potential for commercial agriculture. This work has investigated poultry farms in three production cluster areas in Enugu State namely: Emene (in Enugu East) located on 6.523815°N, 7.4151535°E and 1236 ft; Ngwo (in Enugu North/Udi) located on 6.523815°N, 7.57528°E and 572 ft and Nsukka located on 6.234754°N, 7.326473°E and 3422 ft. The study identified the position of each farm using Global Positioning System (GPS) hand held device; their specific mechanization needs and challenges limiting the performances of the farms using structured questionnaire, oral interviews and on-the-spot assessments. Position and mechanization data were represented in a map using ArcGIS version 10.3. The farms visited produce eggs, broilers or layers or combinations of them, and the sizes of the farms range from unit of thousands to tens of thousands of birds; these generally are commercial poultry farms but of low or medium scale levels. The survey reveals that most of the poultry farms are having the following mechanization needs: Power supply, egg handling, road network, waste handling, feed mill, pelleting machine, battery cage, automatic drinker, water pump, and automatic feeder; however the need depends on the level of production. Other problems or challenges facing the farms visited as observed during the survey are classified as management problems quantified as 60%, technical problems 30% and the problem of cost 10%. Result of this work is a step further in developing and building up the much talked about commodity-specific data base system for agribusiness decision support and development in the local area. Key words: Mapping, poultry farms, mechanization needs, Global Positioning System (GPS), Geographical Information System (GIS).

The desolation of Smaug: The human-driven decline of the Sungazer lizard (Smaug giganteus)

The Sungazer (Smaug giganteus) is a threatened lizard species endemic to the Highveld grasslands of South Africa. The species faces risks from habitat loss and fragmentation, and illegal harvesting for traditional medicine and the pet trade. Despite these threats, the current conservation status of the species was poorly validated. We visited 79 Sungazer populations recorded in 1978 to assess population change since the initial surveys, and surveyed an additional 164 sites to better define the distribution and estimate the current population size. We interrogated all known historical trade data of the species. One-third of Sungazer populations have been extirpated over the past 37 years. The distribution includes two allopatric populations, with the smaller Mpumalanga population experiencing a significantly higher decline. The species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 34 500km2, and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 1149km2. The interpreted distribution is 17 978km2, and just under 60% remains untransformed grassland. We estimate a population size of 677 000 mature individuals, down 48% from the estimated historical population, prior to commercial agricultural development. A total of 1194 live Sungazers were exported under permit from South Africa between 1985 and 2014, with a significant increase in numbers exported over the last decade. Without any evidence of captive breeding, we believe that these animals are all wild-caught. Based on the AOO, level of decline, fragmentation within the distribution and suspected level of exploitation, we recommend classification of the species as Vulnerable under IUCN Red List Criteria A2acd and B2ab(ii–v). The establishment of a protected area network, genetic research and further investigations into the pet and traditional medicine trades are urgently needed.

Apropiaciones de comunales en la Puebla de Guadalupe (Cáceres) durante la Baja Edad Media = Appropriation of Common Lands in Guadalupe (Cáceres) during the Late Middle Ages

This work aims at reexamining the model of late-medieval rural society, considered a paradigm by previous scholarship, which was focused on the involvement of different social groups that were part of the rural community of the Puebla de Guadalupe in the process of appropriating communal lands. The privatization of this territory is seen as a response by the rural economy to the new late-medieval economic framework. The analysis of notary records reveals the evolution of the process and the ability of tax-payers to develop various economic practices: From the establishment of large territorial units of exploitation aimed at the local market and a subsistence economy, to the ownership of small and medium-sized plots meant for the development of commercial agriculture. All tax-paying groups participated in this practice and this was due in part to the open character of the rural elite.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade and Social Stratification on the Gold Coast

ABSTRACTThe paper is concerned with the impact of the transatlantic slave trade on African economies. It focuses upon the case of the Gold Coast, studying quantitatively the impact on the social stratification of Gold Coast societies. The paper argues that the demand for provisions from the external slave trade was too small to have any substantial direct positive linkage effects for the development of commercial agriculture in the rural part of the Gold Coast. Some labourers in the coastal European enclaves experienced an initial temporary boom in living standards, but soon a period of decline took precedent. Only a small group of highly privileged, key employees were able to gain consistently from their positions working for the European slave traders.

A Forgotten Instrument of Global Capitalism?International Concessions, 1870–1930

From the mid-1800s through the 1930s, concessions were an institutional foundation of modern capitalism about which we have little systematic, comparative knowledge. Concessions - contracts given by governments in less-developed states to foreign investors - supplied elements that were lacking in the host country, including a congenial legal order and an attractive investment environment. Cash-poor governments eager to modernise often added special privileges and monopoly rights to concessions in order to attract capital. In Africa and Asia, all the colonial powers granted concessions to promote the building of infrastructure and development of commercial agriculture without burdening the Treasury. After providing a global survey of concessions with special attention to Russia, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, and French West Africa, the author concludes that concessions, by their nature, entailed contradictions that made them a ‘third best’ option for political elites eager to incorporate peripheral regions into the world economy.

Private agricultural colonization on a Brazilian frontier, 1970–1980

Private colonization is the use of companies and cooperatives to survey, demarcate and occupy land, build infrastructure, open roads, plan urban areas, and provide health services and education. Although state-directed colonization projects are strongly implicated in recent environmental and social changes in the Brazilian Amazon, areas settled by private colonization were larger than state-led settlement. The paper considers this poorly examined aspect of the region's recent settlement history by focusing upon a colonization cooperative and private company that settled smallholders from southern Brazil to eastern Mato Grosso State between 1970 and 1980. The analysis emphasizes how private colonization cooperatives successfully secured land title, setting the stage for subsequent commercial agricultural development. This study rejects prevailing interpretations of private colonization as a tool of authoritarian government in Brazil. Rather, private colonization secured land tenure and organized an economically viable production system in a frontier environment of unpredictable state bureaucracies, high transaction costs, risk, and precarious markets.

The Persistence, Elaboration and Eventual Modification Of Humboldt's View Of The Lowland Tropics

Most travellers who came to Mexico in the nineteenth century entered at Veracruz and proceeded inland through the coastal lowlands along the Jalapa road. While in the lowlands many recalled and elaborated on Humboldt's dictum that although nature was highly promising in this region the lowlanders had been unequal to its challenge. Extraneous intervention would be necessary for the development of commercial agriculture, the economic optimum. Such widely accepted evaluations influenced, and prejudiced, the planning of tropical lowland development well into the second half of the twentieth century. In recent years, amid the litter of failed projects, traditional and even Pre-Hispanic adaptations and techniques have been rediscovered by Mexican as well as foreign observers. It is clear now that there was more wisdom in traditional lowland agricultural practice than was expected.