Development Of Boys Research Articles

Breastfeeding and Children's Cognitive Development up to the Age of 4 Years: The Japan Environment and Children's Study.

Objective: Breastfeeding, depending on its duration, has been suggested to benefit children's cognitive development. We aimed to examine this issue by using the Japan Environment and Children's Study, a nationwide prospective birth cohort study. Methods: We evaluated the relationship between feeding methods and cognitive development in 2- and 4-year-old children. We classified the children based on the following feeding method during the first 6 months postpartum: (1) exclusive breastfeeding group, solely breastfeeding; (2) partial breastfeeding group, solely breastfeeding for ≤5 months and combination of breastfeeding/formula for the rest of months; (3) formula-fed group, solely formula feeding for ≥4 months; and (4) others. Cognitive development was assessed by trained testers using the Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development 2001. Results: Data on 1,329 boys and 1,398 girls were analyzed. Multiple regression analysis was performed using the exclusive breastfeeding group as the reference. Boys of age 2 years in the formula-fed group had significantly lower developmental quotients (DQs) in the language-social developmental (L-S) area (partial regression coefficient [B]: -4.624, p = 0.01), whereas no significant difference was observed in those of age 4 years. Girls of age 2 and 4 years in the formula-fed group had significantly lower L-S area DQ (B: -3.637, p = 0.03 and B: -3.414, p = 0.03, respectively). In the partial breastfeeding group, no significant differences in the L-S area DQ were observed in 2- and 4-year-old boys and girls. Conclusions: Exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months postpartum may be more beneficial for verbal cognitive development in 4-year-old girls than solely formula feeding for ≥4 months. Furthermore, breastfeeding combined with formula for the first 6 months postpartum may not have a disadvantage on cognitive development in boys and girls of age ≥ 2 years, when compared with that observed with exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months postpartum.

Peculiarities of length-weight somatometric indices in school-age children of the industrial center

Introduction. Children’s health is of particular value, being a medical, biological and social and labour potential for any state. Objective and informative health indices include parameters of the physical development. The aim of the study is to assess length-weight somatometric indices in children studying in general educational institutions of Ulan-Ude. Materials and methods. The sample of respondents included nine hundred thirty two school-age children. Variables were sampled for length and weight, body mass index was calculated and compared with WHO criteria. Descriptive statistics are expressed as mean and standard deviation, Student’s t-test was used to compare means. Results. Among children of the industrial center, persons with harmonious physical development predominate (51.9±2.6%). Among the variants of disharmonious physical development in boys and girls, excessive body weight (27.3±2.3% and 22.9±1.9) and high height (12.6±1.7% and 14±1.6%, respectively) prevailed. The proportion of other variants of disharmony (low length, body weight deficit and their combination) is small. The phenomena of sexual dimorphism are quite pronounced in children – acceleration of growth differed from the general patterns earlier by 2–3 years. Limitations. The results of the study have limitations in relation to children with various health disorders. Given the small number of age groups, as well as the fact that children of one industrial center were examined, the diagnostic significance of the data obtained may be less objective. Conclusion. Regional features of growth-weight somatometric indices are important to timely identify children with disharmonious development as early as possible to prevent long-term consequences.

Maternal stress in pregnancy and pubertal timing in girls and boys: a cohort study

To investigate whether maternal stress in pregnancy is associated with pubertal timing in girls and boys and to explore potential mediation by childhood body mass index (BMI) and childhood psychosocial stress. Cohort study. Not applicable. In total, 14,702 girls and boys from the Puberty Cohort, nested within the Danish National Birth Cohort. Maternal stress was obtained from a computer-assisted telephone interview in gestational weeks 30-32 as maternal life stress and emotional distress in pregnancy using questions on the basis of validated screening tools. Maternal life stress and emotional distress in pregnancy were analyzed separately and in an interaction analysis. Pubertal timing was measured half-yearly from age 11 years and throughout pubertal development and assessed as Tanner stages 1-5 (breast and pubic hair development in girls and genital and pubic hair development in boys), menarche in girls, voice break and first ejaculation in boys, and occurrence of acne and axillary hair in both girls and boys. A combined estimate for overall pubertal timing was derived using Huber-White robust variance estimation. Mean differences in age at attaining the pubertal milestones according to prenatal exposure to no (reference), low-, moderate-, or high-maternal stress in pregnancy were estimated using a multivariable censored regression model. Potential mediation by childhood BMI and childhood psychosocial stress was investigated in separate models. After adjustment for potential confounding factors, prenatal exposure to high-maternal life stress (combined estimate: -1.8 months [95% CI, -2.7 to -0.8] and -0.9 months [95% CI, -1.8 to 0.0]), high maternal emotional distress (combined estimate: -1.5 months [95% CI, -2.5 to -0.5] and -1.7 months [95% CI, -2.8 to -0.7]), and both high-maternal life stress and emotional distress (combined estimate: -2.8 months [95% CI, -4.2, to -1.4] and -1.7 months [95% CI, -3.1 to -0.2]) were associated with earlier pubertal timing in girls and boys, respectively. The associations were not mediated by childhood BMI or childhood psychosocial stress. Prenatal exposure to maternal stress in pregnancy was associated with earlier pubertal timing in girls and boys in a dose-dependent manner. The associations were not mediated by childhood BMI or childhood psychosocial stress.

Prepubertal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are associated with early pubertal development onset in boys: A longitudinal study

ObjectiveTo investigate the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) on puberty in boys. Methods695 subjects were selected from four primary schools in Chongqing, China. 675 urine samples from these boys were collected four PAH metabolites: 1-hydroxypyrene, 2-hydroxynaphthoic, 2-hydroxyfluorene, and 9-hydroxyphenanthrene. Pubertal development of 695 boys was assessed at follow-up visits starting in December 2015 and occurring every six months thereafter until now, data used in this article ending in June 2021. A total of 12 follow-up visits were performed. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to analyze the relationship between PAH metabolite concentrations and indicators of pubertal timing. ResultsThe mean age at puberty onset of testicular volume, facial hair, pubic hair, first ejaculation, and axillary hair in boys was 11.66, 12.43, 12.51, 12.72 and 13.70 years, respectively. Cox proportional hazards regression models showed that boys with moderate level of 1-OHPyr exposure was associated with earlier testicular development (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.276, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.006–1.619), with moderate level of 2-OHNap were at higher risk of early testicular development (HR = 1.273, 95% CI: 1.002–1.617) and early axillary hair development (HR = 1.355, 95% CI: 1.040–1.764), with moderate level of 2-OHFlu was associated with earlier pubic hair development (HR = 1.256, 95% CI: 1.001–1.577), with high level of 9-OHPhe were at higher risk of early fisrt ejaculation (HR = 1.333, 95% CI: 1.005–1.767) and early facial hair development (HR = 1.393, 95% CI: 1.059–1.831). ConclusionPrepubertal exposure to PAHs may be associated with earlier pubertal development in boys.

Genetic confounding in the association of early motor development with childhood and adolescent exercise behavior

IntroductionEarly motor development has been found to be a predictor of exercise behavior in children and adolescents, but whether this reflects a causal effect or confounding by genetic or shared environmental factors remains to be established.MethodsFor 20,911 complete twin pairs from the Netherlands Twin Register a motor development score was obtained from maternal reports on the timing of five motor milestones. During a 12-year follow-up, subsamples of the mothers reported on the twins’ ability to perform seven gross motor skills ability (N = 17,189 pairs), and weekly minutes of total metabolic equivalents of task (MET) spent on sports and exercise activities at age 7 (N = 3632 pairs), age 10 (N = 3735 pairs), age 12 (N = 7043 pairs), and age 14 (N = 3990 pairs). Multivariate phenotypic and genetic regression analyses were used to establish the predictive strength of the two motor development traits for future exercise behavior, the contribution of genetic and shared environmental factors to the variance in all traits, and the contribution of familial confounding to the phenotypic prediction.ResultsSignificant heritability (h2) and shared environmental (c2) effects were found for early motor development in boys and girls (h2 = 43-65%; c2 = 16-48%). For exercise behavior, genetic influences increased with age (boys: h2age7 = 22% to h2age14 = 51%; girls: h2age7 = 3% to h2age14 = 18%) paired to a parallel decrease in the influence of the shared environment (boys: c2age7 = 68% to c2age14 = 19%; girls: c2age7 = 80% to c2age14 = 48%). Early motor development explained 4.3% (p < 0.001) of the variance in future exercise behavior in boys but only 1.9% (p < 0.001) in girls. If the effect in boys was due to a causal effect of motor development on exercise behavior, all of the factors influencing motor development would, through the causal chain, also influence future exercise behavior. Instead, only the genetic parts of the regression of exercise behavior on motor development were significant. Shared and unique environmental parts of the regression were largely non-significant, which is at odds with the causal hypothesis.ConclusionNo support was found for a direct causal effect in the association between rapid early motor development on future exercise behavior. In boys, early motor development appears to be an expression of the same genetic factors that underlie the heritability of childhood and early adolescent exercise behavior.

Cryptorchidism and puberty.

Cryptorchidism is the condition in which one or both testes have not descended adequately into the scrotum. The congenital form of cryptorchidism is one of the most prevalent urogenital anomalies in male newborns. In the acquired form of cryptorchidism, the testis that was previously descended normally is no longer located in the scrotum. Cryptorchidism is associated with an increased risk of infertility and testicular germ cell tumors. However, data on pubertal progression are less well-established because of the limited number of studies. Here, we aim to review the currently available data on pubertal development in boys with a history of non-syndromic cryptorchidism-both congenital and acquired cryptorchidism. The review is focused on the timing of puberty, physical changes, testicular growth, and endocrine development during puberty. The available evidence demonstrated that the timing of the onset of puberty in boys with a history of congenital cryptorchidism does not differ from that of non-cryptorchid boys. Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal hormone measurements showed an impaired function or fewer Sertoli cells and/or germ cells among boys with a history of cryptorchidism, particularly with a history of bilateral cryptorchidism treated with orchiopexy. Leydig cell function is generally not affected in boys with a history of cryptorchidism. Data on pubertal development among boys with acquired cryptorchidism are lacking; therefore, more research is needed to investigate pubertal progression among such boys.

The pattern of adolescent puberty at Sekar Pengharapan orphanage and Widya Asih orphanage, Badung, Bali

Background: Puberty is a transition phase from adolescence to adulthood. In this period, there are physical, hormonal and psychological changes. The appearance of secondary sex characteristics characterizes puberty and ends with the arrival of menarche in girls and complete genital development in boys. This study determined the pattern of puberty in adolescents in orphanages. Method: This study used a descriptive cross-sectional design. The data were taken at Sekar Pengharapan and Widhya Asih orphanage Badung, Bali, on December 4th, 2021. The subjects in this study were children who entered the age of puberty in an orphanage and met inclusion and exclusion criteria. The ethics section of Medical Faculty Universitas Udayana/Sanglah Hospital approved this research. The SPSS program analyzed the data with p&lt;0,05 determined significant value. Result: 50 subjects who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria participated in this study; 31 (62.0%) subjects were female, and 19 (38.0%) were male. The research subjects' age (mean±SD) was 15.5±1.3 years. There were 3 subjects (6.0%) in prepubertal condition, while most (50.0%) were in the Tanner scale stage 4. Most subjects had good nutritional status (92.0%), and no subject was stunted. The average length of stay in the orphanage of the subjects was 13.3 ± 9.2 months. Most subjects were on the Tanner 4, about 25 people (50%). The average age of menarche in this study was 11.5 ± 0.6 years. Conclusion: The level of sexual maturity in orphanage adolescents is relatively normal in the orphanage population. However, there are still 3 teenagers who are at prepubertal age. The age of menarche in women is relatively normal based on age.

Maternal prenatal and postnatal psychological distress trajectories and impact on cognitive development in 4-year-old children: the Japan Environment and Children's Study.

Maternal prenatal and postnatal psychological distress, including depression and anxiety, may affect children's cognitive development. However, the findings have been inconsistent. We aimed to use the dataset from the Japan Environment and Children's Study, a nationwide prospective birth cohort study, to examine this association. We evaluated the relationship between the maternal six-item version of the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6) scores and cognitive development among children aged 4 years. K6 was administered twice during pregnancy (M-T1; first half of pregnancy, M-T2; second half of pregnancy) and 1 year postpartum (C-1y). Cognitive development was assessed by trained testers, using the Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development 2001. Multiple regression analysis was performed with the group with a K6 score ≤ 4 for both M-T1 and M-T2 and C-1y as a reference. Records from 1,630 boys and 1,657 girls were analyzed. In the group with K6 scores ≥ 5 in both M-T1 and M-T2 and C-1Y groups, boys had significantly lower developmental quotients (DQ) in the language-social developmental (L-S) area (partial regression coefficient: -4.09, 95% confidence interval: -6.88 - -1.31), while girls did not differ significantly in DQ for the L-S area. Among boys and girls, those with K6 scores ≤ 4 at any one or two periods during M-T1, M-T2, or C-1y did not have significantly lower DQ for the L-S area. Persistent maternal psychological distress from the first half of pregnancy to 1 year postpartum had a disadvantageous association with verbal cognitive development in boys, but not in girls aged 4 years.

Prognostic signs of the course of puberty in adolescents with type 1 diabetes

Objective — to determine significant clinical, anamnestic and hormonal factors on the prognosis of puberty disorders in modern adolescents with type 1 diabetes.&#x0D; Materials and methods. A comprehensive examination involved 233 patients with type 1 diabetes aged 9 to 18 years, who were examined and treated in the Endocrinological Department of the SI «ICAHC NAMS». Based on the results of assessment of the physical and sexual development, the groups of patients with a physiological and pathological course of puberty have been distinguished. To determine significant prognostic clinical, anamnestic, hormonal and metabolic signs regarding the course of puberty in adolescents with type 1 diabetes, the system and information analysis, heterogeneous sequential statistical technique «the Wald test» with the application of the Kullback—Leibler information measure was used. Creating a database and statistical processing of the results were carried out using application packages Microsoft Excel and SPSS 17.0 programs.&#x0D; Results and discussion. The most informative factors have been determined for prognosis of the course of physical and sexual development in adolescents with type 1 diabetes, and the informativeness and predictive coefficients (PC) of initial clinical, anamnestic and hormonal data indicators have been calculated. The most informative signs were combined with the table of physical and sexual development of girls and boys with type 1 diabetes. Despite some gender features of predicting the course of physical and sexual development in boys and girls, it has been proven that the most significant factors in predicting the course of puberty in patients with type 1 diabetes are the period of puberty in which the manifestation of diabetes occurred, the state of compensation carbohydrate metabolism, the level of self-control and the presence of comorbid thyroid gland pathology. Common adverse factors included manifestation of type 1 diabetes in childhood and in the early stages of puberty; the use of short-acting and long-acting human insulins; insufficient or excessive dose of exogenous insulin during puberty; unsatisfactory level of compensation of carbohydrate metabolism with high variability glycaemia during the day and low indicators of the duration of stay in the target range state; low level of diabetes self-control and lack of devices for monitoring of blood glucose; presence of thyropathy with signs thyroid insufficiency.&#x0D; Conclusions. The possibility to predict the course of puberty in an individual patient is the basis for the development of an individual preventive and therapeutic program, aimed at preserving the reproductive potential and social adaptation of adolescents with type 1 diabetes.

The impact of a skipped-generation family structure on early child development in Khon Kaen Province: a prospective cohort study

Parenting in early childhood is related to child development. This study aimed to investigate the impact of a skipped-generation family structure on early child development. This prospective cohort study collected data on children aged 6 to 18 months from 132 non-skipped-generation families and 115 skipped-generation families from primary care units in Khon Kaen province for 1 year. The data were collected using a structured questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews, as well as the Denver II instrument for assessing child development. Using multivariate logistic regression, the impact of a skipped-generation family structure on infant development was analysed, and adjusted relative risks (aRRs) are presented. We found that 19.83% (49/247) of the children had suspected delayed development in all domains. Most of these children resided in skipped-generation families, accounting for 27.82% of the sample (32/115). After adjusting for other factors, it was found that male children from skipped-generation families had a higher risk of suspected delayed language development (aRR = 14.56, 95% CI = 1.34 to 158.34, p = 0.028). In conclusion, the parental practices of skipped-generation families are suspected of causing delayed language development in boys. Models of early childhood development should be established for skipped-generation families.

Variation of Bone Turnover Markers in Childhood and Adolescence.

To determine the bone metabolic marker changes from childhood to adolescence and to provide reference values for monitoring bone development in children in Southwest China. We surveyed 703 participants attending physical examinations from April 2019 and August 2021. Twenty-eight participants were excluded for lack of laboratory tests, and 14 people were excluded for diseases that might affect bone metabolism. A total of 661 children were selected for the study. According to the main developmental periods, the children were divided into preschool, preadolescence, and adolescence groups. Serum bone turnover markers including β-isomerized C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (β-CTx), N-terminal midfragment of osteocalcin (N-MID), and procollagen type 1 N-propeptide (P1NP) as well as growth and development indices such as serum calcium (Ca), phosphorus (Pi), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and vitamin D were measured. The changes in bone metabolism-related markers and the correlations between the indices were analyzed. During the development in boys, the levels of β-CTx and N-MID increased with age from preschool to adolescence, while the levels of P1NP decreased and then increased. In girls, the levels of β-CTx and N-MID plateaued in early adolescence and showed little change in subsequent adolescence, while the levels of P1NP exhibited a downward trend. The correlations between bone metabolism markers and vitamin D were not significant. The levels of bone metabolism markers differed between boys and girls. Reference intervals can be used as essential tools to examine the levels of bone metabolism markers reasonably.

#4881 NEPHROPROTECTION IN BOYS WITH X-LINKED ALPORT SYNDROME: THE SOONER THE BETTER

Abstract Background and Aims Proteinuria (Pr) is a marker of glomerular diseases progression. The aim of study was to define the efficiency of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) treatment in prevention of Pr development in boys with X-linked Alport's syndrome (XLAS). Method Single center observation study included boys with confirmed XLAS (n = 87). Twenty nine pts (1gr) started ACEi (enalapril 4.2±1.4 mg/m2/day) in non-proteinuric stage of disease (Pr≤100 mg/m2/day); mean age 6.2±3.9 yrs, eGFR Schwartz 118±15.2 ml/min/1.73 m2, Pr 67±23 mg/m2/day. Fifty eight pts (2gr) without preemptive ACEi treatment were observed from mean age 6.8±4.9 yrs, eGFR 119±17.3 ml/min/1.73 m2, Pr 87±43 mg/m2/day. Follow up was 6.2±3.9 yrs, mean age at the last observation was 11.7±3.9 yrs vs 14.2±4.6 yrs (p = 0.67) in 1gr and 2gr, respectively. The occurrence of Pr (Pr&amp;gt;100 mg/m2/day) was defined as primary end point of the study. Results The pts of 1gr had lower rate (0.48 vs 0.94, p&amp;lt;0.001) and higher age (10.2±3.9 vs 4.9±3.4 yrs, p = 0.3) of Pr occurrence than in 2gr. ACEi treatment reduced risk of Pr onset (OR = 0.05(95%CI 0.013-0.2)) with absolute risk reduction of Pr by 47% (RD = 0.47) and number of treated pts to prevent Pr development (NNT) 2.14. No difference was revealed between 1gr pts with and without Pr development in age of therapy start (7.1±3.3 vs 6.3±2.8 yrs), ACEi dose (2.3±0.8 vs 2.1±0.6 mg/m2/day) and COL4A5 gene mutation type (missense variants 0.72 vs 0.86). Arterial hypertension was a risk factor of Pr occurrence in 1gr (χ2 = 4,42, p = 0.04); children with Pr development was older at the last observation: 13.5±3.2 vs 9.9±3.8 yrs, p = 0.47. No side effects of treatment were observed. Conclusion The early ACEi therapy halves the risk of Pr development in boys with XLAS and may prevent the disease progression in these patients.

Associations of Obesity With Growth and Puberty in Children: A Cross-Sectional Study in Fuzhou, China.

Objectives: To investigate the associations of obesity with growth and puberty in children. Methods: From November 2017 to December 2019, height, weight, and Tanner stages of 26,879 children aged 3-18years in Fuzhou, China were assessed. Results: The obese group was significantly taller than the non-obese group after age 4years for both genders, yet there was no significant difference in height between obese and non-obese group after 15.5years old for boys and 12.5years old for girls. The inflection points of significant growth deceleration in obese and non-obese groups were 14.4 and 14.6years old for boys, and 11.8 and 12.8years old for girls, respectively. The proportions of testicular development in boys with obesity and non-obesity were 7.96% and 5.08% at 8.5-8.9years old, respectively, while the proportions of breast development in girls were 17.19% and 3.22% at age 7.5-7.9years old, respectively. Conclusion: Children with obesity were taller in early childhood, earlier onset of puberty and earlier cessation of growth than children with non-obesity of the same age. However, there was sex dimorphism on the effect of obesity on the incidence of precocious puberty.

Mixed exposure to phthalates and organic UV filters affects Children's pubertal development in a gender-specific manner

BackgroundPrevious studies showed phthalates and UV filters are endocrine-disruptive and associated with puberty. However, few studies have examined effects of mixed exposure. MethodsSix phthalate metabolites and 12 organic UV filters were detected among 223 school-age children. Puberty development was evaluated at baseline and after 18 months of follow-up. Ordered logistic regression models, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression and quantile-based g-computation (qgcomp) were used to evaluate relationships between phthalate metabolites or UV filters exposure and pubertal development. ResultsSix phthalate metabolites and 5 UV filters were detectable in urine samples. In boys, BP-3 and 4′-MAP were negatively associated with genital (ORBP-3 = 0.52, (0.27, 0.93), OR4′-MAP = 0.45, (0.25, 0.74)) and pubic hair development (ORBP-3:0.24, (0.05, 0.76), OR4′-MAP:0.24, (0.05, 0.77)). In girls, MEP levels were associated with advanced breast development (OR: 1.29, (1.04, 1.64)). LASSO regression identified BP-3, 4′-MAP, and OD-PABA for inverse associations with pubertal development in boys. MEP was related to an increase in girls' breast development (OR: 1.64, (1.08, 2.63)). Overall mixture was related to a 70% reduction in boys' genital development stage, with a larger effect size than a single chemical in qgcomp. Mixed exposure was associated with girls' earlier puberty onset (OR: 2.61, (1.06, 6.42)). ConclusionsOur results suggested higher levels of phthalate metabolites and UV filters were associated with delayed pubertal development in boys but with earlier puberty in girls. Higher effect size of joint exposure than single chemicals suggested phthalates and UV filters might have synergistic effects on puberty and distort adolescent endocrine function together.

Early school-age family meal characteristics matter for the later development of boys and girls.

Sharing a meal together offers an innovative approach to study the family environment. How often families eat together may not capture the distinct experience for sons and daughters. Instead, studying family meal characteristics might be more enlightening. This study aims to examine the prospective associations between family meal environment quality at age 6 years and later well-being at age 12 years in 734 boys and 758 girls. Participants are from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development birth cohort. When children were aged 6 years, parents reported on their family meal environment experience. At age 12 years, child outcomes included parent-reported healthy lifestyle habits, teacher-reported academic achievement, and self-reported social adjustment. The relationship between early family meal environment quality and later child outcomes were analyzed using multivariate linear regressions. For girls, better family meal environment quality at age 6 years predicted an earlier bedtime, a lower consumption of soft drinks and sweet snacks, more classroom engagement, and fewer behavior problems at age 12 years. For boys, better family meal environment quality at age 6 years predicted an earlier bedtime and less anxiety and more prosocial behaviour at age 12 years. These significant relationships were adjusted for a multitude of child/family characteristics. From a population-health perspective, our findings suggest that family meals represent a cost-efficient, effective protective factor that likely has long-term influences on bio-psycho-social development. Information campaigns that promote family meals as a health intervention could optimize the well-being of boys and girls.

Behavioural strengths and difficulties in relation to intellectual functions and age in Swedish boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to describe behavioral strengths and difficulties in relation to intellectual function and age in boys with DMD. In a cross-sectional design, 70 boys with DMD were tested at 5, 8, 11, and 14 years of age (mean age 10y 5 m). Parental ratings of behavioral strengths and difficulties were studied in relation to age, intellectual function, motor function, and family socioeconomic status (SES). Results show a significant relation between behavioral strengths and difficulties and age with parents rating increasingly more difficulties (slightly higher, higher and very high) from 5 years (11.1%) to 9 years (30.8%) and 11 years (78.9%) of age and then fewer difficulties at 14 years (50%) of age. Working Memory Index (WMI) explained significant variance in SDQ-Total-Score (17.5%) and SDQ-Impact-Score (11.2%). WMI together with upper motor function explained 19.5% variance in SDQ-Hyperactivity and 19.7% in SDQ-Peer-Problems. Age and SES explained an 18.9% variance in SDQ-Emotional-Problems. Age is an important factor when analyzing behavioral strengths and difficulties for boys with DMD. The development of boys with DMD needs to be understood in the context of expected developmental trajectory as well as in the decline of psychical functioning. Our study supports that age, cognition, motor function, and family SES all contribute to how behavioral strengths and difficulties evolves in boys with DMD.

Penile diameter during puberty in boys: aretrospective analysis of longitudinally obtained data.

Tanner staging is the standard for rating sexual maturation (SMR) in boys (pubic hair (PH) and genital (G)development). G staging is tripartite innature and is prone to ambiguity because it is based upon somewhat vague visual cues that may lead to erroneous assessments and medical errors. Measurement of penile growth (penile girth or diameter) may provide an additional tool (in addition to the orchidometer) to make Gstaging more valid. Although studies on penile growth (either circumference of width) have been reported, none were longitudinal. Therefore, our objective was to compare penile development in boys- measured as penile diameter (PD)- to PH stage and testicular volume (TV) and secondarily to G stage; moreover, to do so on a longitudinal basis. Charts of 61 boys, ages 6-21years of age, who were seen longitudinally, were reviewed. Each boy had his PD and TV measured along with his PH and G stage assessed on a quarterly to semi-annual basis. PD increased significantly among PH stages II, III, and IV only. PD increased significantly among G stages I, II, III and IV only. PD correlated well with TV. There were significant correlations between PD and TV in all PHstages. However, for G stage correlations were not significant for stages II, III, and IV. PH stage was a better predictor of PD than G stage. Measuring PD may be another tool to help in objectifying male SMR during puberty and overcome the vagueness encountered with the visual SMR G stage scales.

Influence of Respiratory Tract Infections on Vocabulary Growth in Relation to Child’s Sex: The STEPS Study

Common health issues have been less examined in studies of early language development, particularly in relation to the child's sex. Respiratory tract infections, often complicated by acute otitis media, are common in children during the first years of life, when early vocabulary development takes place. The present study, conducted in Finland, aimed to investigate whether possible associations between recurrent respiratory tract infections, background factors, and vocabulary growth differ in boys and girls aged 13 to 24 months. The participants (N = 462, 248 boys and 214 girls) were followed for respiratory tract infections and acute otitis media from 0 to 23 months of age. The parents completed daily symptom diaries of respiratory symptoms, physician visits, and diagnoses. The expressive vocabulary was measured with parental reports. We found that recurrent respiratory tract infections were not associated with slower vocabulary development in boys or girls. In fact, boys with recurrent respiratory tract infections had more vocabulary growth during the second year than boys who were less sick. We found that vocabulary growth was associated differently with respiratory tract infections and background factors as a function of the child's sex. The vocabulary growth of boys seems to be more influenced by environmental factors than that of girls.

Associations of paternal factors and child’s sex with early vocabulary development – The STEPS study

In a changing society where the roles of fathers and mothers in caregiving are becoming more equal, the role of the father in early language development has also changed. We aimed to study associations between paternal factors and early vocabulary development in boys and girls. In a longitudinal cohort study, we examined the growth of expressive vocabulary in 354 boys and 331 girls between 13 and 24 months of age using the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory. The results show that boys who had fathers not working full time, who had mothers with higher occupational status, and who had a larger vocabulary size at 13 months of age had larger gains in vocabulary. Girls with fathers working as professionals (high occupational status) had larger vocabulary growth compared to girls with fathers of lower occupational status. The results demonstrate that vocabulary growth in boys and girls relates differently to environmental factors. The results highlight the importance of further studies on fathers’ role in children’s early vocabulary development and the need to analyse the influence of environmental factors on early language development as a function of the child’s sex.

Childhood exposure to non-persistent pesticides and pubertal development in Spanish girls and boys: Evidence from the INMA (Environment and Childhood) cohort

This study assessed cross-sectional associations between urinary metabolites of non-persistent pesticides and pubertal development in boys and girls from urban and rural areas in Spain and examined effect modification by body mass index (BMI). Four metabolites of insecticides (TCPy, metabolite of chlorpyrifos; IMPy, metabolite of diazinon; DETP, non-specific metabolite of organophosphates; 3-PBA, metabolite of pyrethroids) and the metabolite of ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate fungicides (ETU) were quantified in urine collected in 2010–2016 from 7 to 11-year-old children (606 girls, 933 boys) participating in the INMA Project. Pubertal development was ascertained by Tanner stages and/or parent-reported Pubertal Development Scale (PDS). Associations between pesticide metabolites and odds of being in stage 2+ for breast development (girls), genital development (boys), pubic hair growth (girls and boys), and/or overall puberty onset, gonadarche, and adrenarche (PDS for girls and boys) were examined by mixed-effect logistic regression. Effect modification by BMI was explored by interaction terms and stratified analysis. In girls, DETP and ETU concentrations>75th percentile (P75) were associated with higher odds of overall puberty development (OR [95%CI] = 1.86 [1.07–3.24] and 1.71 [1.03–2.83], respectively, for > P75 vs. undetected concentrations), while ETU > P75 was also associated with higher odds of breast development (OR [95%CI] = 5.55 [2.83–12.91]), particularly in girls with underweight/normal weight (OR [95%CI] = 10.08 [2.62–38.76]). In boys, detection of TCPy (40%) and 3-PBA (34%) was associated with higher odds of genital development (OR [95%CI] = 1.97 [1.08–3.57] and 2.08 [1.15–3.81], respectively), and the association with 3-PBA was observed in boys with overweight/obesity alone. In addition, ETU > P75 was associated with higher odds of genital development in boys with underweight/normal weight (OR [95%CI] = 2.89 [1.08–7.74]) but higher DETP with lower odds of puberty in boys with overweight/obesity (OR [95%CI] = 0.94 [0.89–0.99] per log-unit increase in concentration). Results suggest an association of childhood exposure to ETU and certain insecticides with earlier puberty in girls and boys that may be modified by child BMI.