Development Of Research Questions Research Articles

Prioritising African capacity building research needs using nearest neighbour analysis

We developed a visual research map to stimulate African capacity building studies by interviewing subject matter experts, reviewing the contemporary literature and then conducting non-parametric statistical analysis. First we collected data during a brain storming session held at a three-day conference designed for this study. The participants were subject matter expert practitioners who emigrated from Benin, Uganda, Malawi, Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Cameroon, Congo, Burkina Faso, Eritrea, Algeria, and Nigeria. The nominal group technique was applied to develop research questions which the practitioners felt were not answered in the contemporary literature. We statistically analysed the relationships between the research questions and the empirical literature using a nearest neighbour network analysis to develop a visual research map. We then revisited the literature in more detail using the visual research agenda map to develop specific recommendations for scholars to close the gap in African capacity building practices. This paper should generalise to anyone performing capacity building research in Africa by giving them a prioritised visual research agenda with a preliminary literature review.

The road less traveled: Assessing the impacts of farmer and stakeholder participation in groundwater nitrate pollution research

After decades of effort and investment to promote the use of agricultural best management practices (BMPs) to address nutrient losses from farms, the level of adoption of most BMPs remains relatively low. One increasingly common response has been to involve stakeholders more directly in research on local water quality challenges, with twin goals of improving the science and engaging local residents in the diagnosis of problems and development of effective responses. This paper uses qualitative and quantitative data to assess the impacts of a multiyear nitrate (NO3−) leaching study in a central Montana watershed that used a highly participatory research and outreach approach. For decades, the Judith River watershed has experienced groundwater NO3− levels that exceed safe drinking water standards, and many local residents install expensive water treatment devices, purchase drinking water from private vendors, or drink contaminated water. The project is notable for engaging local farmers, community leaders, and agency staff in the design, implementation, and interpretation of research to identify the sources of NO3− and to understand the effectiveness of alternative management practices in reducing NO3− leaching into groundwater. Two advisory groups regularly met with the science team to develop research questions, structure field research activities, select management practices, discuss interpretation of data, and design outreach efforts. Evidence of project impacts was gathered through interviews with our local collaborators and from a comparison of pre- and postproject surveys of the broader farm operator population in the watershed. The qualitative results suggest that the people most involved in the project became much more engaged with and concerned about how to address the local NO3− problem. The project9s research findings were also more compelling to stakeholders because farmers had been involved in designing and interpreting the data, and the research had been conducted under real-world farming conditions. Survey results collected in the final year of the project showed that farmers in the watershed were familiar with and had very positive impressions about the project, and their levels of awareness and concern about NO3− issues rose over the course of the project. However, widespread changes in farmer behaviors had not been detected three years into the project, and the impact of the project on long-term NO3− contamination trends in the region is still uncertain.

How helpful are mnemonics in the development of a research question?

The formulation of a research question is a vital first step in the research process and the significance of this is well reported in the literature; a well-structured question increases the outcome of useable findings. To aid the development of a research question, a number of frameworks in the form of mnemonics have been identified. It is suggested that the application of these mnemonics may result in confusion rather than provide helpful guidance. To present an overview of some of the mnemonically identified frameworks and consider how they may support the development of a research question. The use of mnemonics can help to develop questions for empirical research or to identify published evidence. The oldest and most commonly cited mnemonic is PICO, which is most often discussed in association with quantitative approaches. Other mnemonics share similarities with PICO, although may be more aligned to particular research approaches. Along with a flexible approach to their use, the characteristics required to establish an effective research question may support the application of published mnemonics. The availability of frameworks in the form of mnemonics can help in the development of a research question, but their use and limitations must be fully understood. A flexible approach to their use is vital and this may also be helped by considering the characteristics of an effective research question. When developing research questions, nurse researchers and nurses with a role in academic supervision should use the available mnemonics as a guide rather than rigidly adhering to them. They should also be aware of the characteristics of a good research question and advise students accordingly.

A dynamical systems framework for crop models: Toward optimal fertilization and irrigation strategies under climatic variability

Crop models are widely used for the modeling and prediction of crop yields, as decision support tools, and to develop research questions. Though typically constructed as a set of dynamical equations, crop models are not often analyzed from a specifically dynamical systems point of view, despite its potential to elucidate the roles of feedbacks and internal and external forcings on system stability and the optimization of control protocols (e.g., irrigation and fertilization). Here we develop a minimal dynamical system, based in part on the widely known AquaCrop model, consisting of a set of ordinary differential equations (ODE's) describing the evolution of canopy cover, soil moisture, and soil nitrogen. These state variables are coupled through canopy growth and senescence, the evapotranspiration and percolation of soil moisture, and the uptake and leaching of soil nitrogen. The system is driven by random hydroclimatic forcing. Important crop model responses, such as biomass and yield, are calculated, and optimal yield and profitability under differing climate scenarios, irrigation strategies, and fertilization strategies are examined within the developed framework. The results highlight the need to maintain the system at or above resource limitation thresholds to achieve optimality and the role of system variability in determining management strategies.

Plants in a “Sea of Relationships”: Networks of Plants and Fishing in Makkovik, Nunatsiavut (Labrador, Canada)

The importance of plants to peoples of the circumpolar North is often overlooked by non-residents. This oversight stems partly from perceptions of northern diets as exclusively meat- and fish-based and from a tendency for visiting researchers to assign plants to categories of utility—edible, medicinal, material—without also considering complex relationships between plants and culture. This paper focuses on the “sea of relationships” (Cajete 2000:178) between plants and fishing in the Inuit Community of Makkovik, where plant mentors teach how plants are integrated into cultural practices and day-to-day life. We looked to Indigenous methodologies for guidance in developing research questions, learning about plants through story and practice, and understanding and communicating collective knowledge. Makkovimiut plant mentors collectively tell a story of plants and fishing, illustrated in this paper by Makkovimiut artist Aunt Nellie Winters through her Inukuluk drawings. These oral and visual stories describe plants as part of a large network of relationships connecting trees, fish, birds, soil, berries, and people. Similarly, cultural practices are connected to each other; fishing is connected to berry picking, sharing, traveling, gardening, and celebrating, among other practices. Indigenous methodologies, with their focus on relationships, encourage us to seek connections between people and plants, and broaden our understanding of utility and value. Thinking of plants in relation—connected to everything in an active web of relationships—helps us recognize plants as vital facilitators of cultural practices, values, and community well-being and offers insights into the different kinds of relationships we might cultivate within this interconnected web.

Systemic challenges in bipolar disorder management: A patient-centered approach.

ObjectivesAs part of a series of Patient‐Centered Outcomes Research Institute‐funded large‐scale retrospective observational studies on bipolar disorder (BD) treatments and outcomes, we sought the input of patients with BD and their family members to develop research questions. We aimed to identify systemic root causes of patient‐reported challenges with BD management in order to guide subsequent studies and initiatives.MethodsThree focus groups were conducted where patients and their family members (total n = 34) formulated questions around the central theme, “What do you wish you had known in advance or over the course of treatment for BD?” In an affinity mapping exercise, participants clustered their questions and ranked the resulting categories by importance. The research team and members of our patient partner advisory council further rated the questions by expected impact on patients. Using a Theory of Constraints systems thinking approach, several causal models of BD management challenges and their potential solution were developed with patients using the focus group data.ResultsA total of 369 research questions were mapped to 33 categories revealing 10 broad themes. The top priorities for patient stakeholders involved pharmacotherapy and treatment alternatives. Analysis of causal relationships underlying 47 patient concerns revealed two core conflicts: for patients, whether or not to take pharmacotherapy, and for mental health services, the dilemma of care quality vs quantity.ConclusionsTo alleviate the core conflicts identified, BD management requires a coordinated multidisciplinary approach including: improved access to mental health services, objective diagnostics, sufficient provider visit time, evidence‐based individualized treatment, and psychosocial support.

Theories and Major Hypotheses in Ethnobotany

Ethnobotany has evolved from a discipline that largely documented the diversity of plant use by local people to one focused on understanding how and why people select plants for a wide range of uses. This progress has been in response to a repeated call for theory-inspired and hypothesis-driven research to improve the rigor of the discipline. Despite improvements, recent ethnobotanical research has overemphasized the use of quantitative ethnobotany indices and statistical methods borrowed from ecology, yet underemphasized the development and integration of a strong theoretical foundation. To advance the field of ethnobotany as a hypothesis-driven, theoretically inspired discipline, it is important to first synthesize the existing theoretical lines of research. We review and discuss 17 major theories and hypotheses in ethnobotany that can be used as a starting point for developing research questions that advance our understanding of people–plant interactions. For each theory or major hypothesis, we identify its primary predictions and testable hypotheses and then discuss how these predictions have been tested. Developing research to test these predictions will make significant contributions to the field of ethnobotany and create the critical mass of primary literature necessary to develop meta-analyses and to advance new theories in ethnobotany.

Youth engagement in developing an implementation science research agenda on adolescent HIV testing and care linkages in sub-Saharan Africa.

Background:The importance of youth engagement in designing, implementing and evaluating programs has garnered more attention as international initiatives seek to address the HIV crisis among this population. Adolescents, however, are not often included in HIV implementation science research and have not had opportunities to contribute to the development of HIV-related research agendas. Project Supporting Operational AIDS Research (SOAR), a United States Agency for International Development-funded global operations research project, involved youth living with HIV in a meeting to develop a strategic implementation science research agenda to improve adolescent HIV care continuum outcomes, including HIV testing and counseling (HTC) and linkage to care.Methods:Project SOAR convened a 2-day meeting of 50 experts, including four youth living with HIV. Participants examined the literature, developed research questions, and voted to prioritize these questions for the implementation science research agenda. This article presents the process of involving youth, how they shaped the course of discussions, and the resulting priority research gaps identified at the meeting.Results:Youth participation influenced working group discussions and the development of the implementation science agenda. Research gaps identified included how to engage vulnerable adolescents, determining the role that stigma, peers, and self-testing have in shaping adolescent HTC behaviors, and examining the costs of different HTC and linkage to care strategies.Conclusion:The meeting participants developed the research agenda to guide future implementation science research to improve HIV outcomes among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa. This process highlighted the importance of youth in shaping implementation science research agendas and the need for greater youth engagement.

WHAT CONSTITUTES STABILITY OF HOME-BASED CARE ARRANGEMENTS FOR PEOPLE WITH DEMENTIA? A META-STUDY

AbstractWorldwide, most people with dementia live at home. The stability of home-based care arrangements is discussed as a crucial factor in health care policy and dementia research. For informal carers maintaining stability is an ever-changing challenge throughout the caring trajectory. We will be presenting a currently conducted synthesis of quantitative and qualitative studies with the primary research question: What constitutes and influences stability of home-based care arrangements for people living with dementia? The methodology of meta-study will be used (synthesis of meta-data-analysis, meta-method, meta-theory). For details see PROSPERO registration number CRD42016041727. First results show that the dynamic nature of stability as a continuous process is a broadly overlooked phenomenon and there is a lack of studies with a trajectory perspective. The majority of quantitative studies focuses on risk factors for institutionalization, but fails to comprehend the dynamics behind it. Qualitative research aims at understanding informal caregiving as a social construction, but pays little attention to its direct impact on whether a care arrangement can be maintained or not. From this synthesis a lot can be learned about how the phenomenon of stability has been understood and approached in dementia research within the last decades. The final results will help to define research gaps that have been overlooked in the past and to develop research questions and study designs that will be able to meet the methodological and theoretical requirements of this complex phenomenon. Finally, they will provide an empirical and theoretical basis to develop stability promoting interventions.

Examining the impact of a school-based fruit and vegetable co-op in the Hispanic community through documentary photography

Hispanic families are at elevated risk for certain diet related illnesses including obesity and diabetes. Brighter Bites is a 16-week school-based program that delivers produce and nutrition education to high-need areas. The purpose of this study was to explore the adoption of Brighter Bites healthy eating strategies in low-income Spanish-speaking families as well as barriers to the sustainability of improved dietary behaviors using Photovoice. Two researchers worked with a predominately Hispanic, low-income public school to conduct the project. Spanish speaking parents participating in Brighter Bites were recruited and five mothers completed the study. Participants developed research questions, took documentary photos, attended group analysis sessions, and organized a community event. Photos from participants were gathered at two time points: i) during the Brighter Bites produce distributions, and ii) when the distributions were no longer in session. Participants organized resulting photos into themes during discussion groups that proceeded each photo-taking period. Themes that emerged during the produce distribution period included: cost savings, increased variety and accessibility of fresh produce, and ability to practice healthy eating. Themes that emerged when the weekly produce distributions were no longer in session included: increased costs, lack of variety, the continued effect of Brighter Bites, and innovative ways to cook with produce. Overall, participants were enthusiastic about the benefits they experienced with the program, but noted hardships in accessing nutritious food without the produce distributions in session. Innovative approaches are needed to create sustainable pathways to healthful food access after community nutrition interventions are complete.

A Patient and Provider Research Agenda on Diabetes and Hypertension Management

A demonstration project in Richmond, Virginia involved patients and other stakeholders in the creation of a research agenda on dietary and behavioral management of diabetes and hypertension. Given the impact of these diseases on morbidity and mortality, considerable research has been directed at the challenges patients face in chronic disease management. The continuing need to understand disparities and find evidence-based interventions to improve outcomes has been fruitful, but disparities and unmet needs persist. The Stakeholder Engagement in Question Development (SEED) method is a stakeholder engagement methodology that combines engagement with a review of available evidence to generate research questions that address current research gaps and are important to patients and other stakeholders. Using the SEED method, patients and other stakeholders participated in research question development through a combination of collaborative, participatory, and consultative engagement. Steps in the process included: (1) identifying the topic and recruiting participants; (2) conducting focus groups and interviews; (3) developing conceptual models; (4) developing research questions; and (5) prioritizing research questions. Stakeholders were involved in the SEED process from February to August 2015. Eighteen questions were prioritized for inclusion in the research agenda, covering diverse domains, from healthcare provision to social and environmental factors. Data analysis took place September to May 2016. During this time, researchers conducted a literature review to target research gaps. The stakeholder-prioritized, novel research questions developed through the SEED process can directly inform future research and guide the development of evidence that translates more directly to clinical practice.

Conceptualizing the Impact of Festival and Event Attendance Upon Family Quality of Life (QOL)

Quality of life (QOL) research has been well explored in medicine, psychology, and the social sciences, although it has received very little attention within festival and event studies. This proposition article is both conceptual and exploratory and will seek to establish the foundations of a framework to investigate the impact(s) festivals and events may have upon individual and family QOL and to set an agenda for research into QOL in the field of festival and event studies. The article begins with a review of literature, which sets the conceptual nature of the article in the area of festival studies and in doing so investigates interconnected themes such as: political, social, cultural, and personal impact discourses. Following this our article provides a review of literature introducing key QOL theories, concepts, and research undertaken in previous studies. The article then progresses naturally into a discussion of the key differences and relationships between individual and family QOL, and provides an overview of previous research in festivals and events to allow the study to develop research questions in order to situate this article and our future research agenda. Following the literature review we present a discussion of key methodological considerations in order to determine the most appropriate and practical framework for collecting and analyzing primary data to better understand the potential impacts of festivals and events on families' QOL. The final section of the article concludes and reflects upon our review of literature and research questions, which we hope will set an agenda for future research in this area and on the development of a framework to test QOL within events.

Involving healthcare professionals and family carers in setting research priorities for end-of-life care.

It is important to ensure regional variances are considered when setting future end-of-life research priorities, given the differing demographics and service provision. This project sought to identify end-of-life research priorities within Greater Manchester (United Kingdom). Following an initial scoping exercise, six topics within the 10 national priorities outlined by The Palliative and end-of-life care Priority Setting Partnership were selected for exploration. A workshop involving 32 healthcare professionals and a consultation process with 26 family carers was conducted. Healthcare professionals and carers selected and discussed the topics important to them. The topics selected most frequently by both healthcare professionals and carers were 'Access to 24 hour care', 'Planning end-of-life care in advance' and 'Staff and carer education'. Healthcare professionals also developed research questions for their topics of choice which were refined to incorporate carers' views. These questions are an important starting point for future end-of-life research within Greater Manchester.

Factors that hinder or enable maternal health strategies to reduce delays in rural and pastoralist areas in Ethiopia.

To document factors that hinder or enable strategies to reduce the first and second delays of the Three Delays in rural and pastoralist areas in Ethiopia. A key informant study was conducted with 44 Health Extension Workers in Afar Region, Kafa Zone (Southern Nation, Nationalities and Peoples' Region), and Adwa Woreda (Tigray Region). Health Extension Workers were trained to interview women and ask for stories about their recent experiences of birth. We interviewed the Health Extension Workers about their experiences referring women for Skilled Birth Attendance and Emergency Obstetric and Newborn Care. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Themes related to reducing the first delay, such as the tradition of home birth, decision-making, distance and unavailability of transport, did not differ between the three locations. Themes related to reducing the second delay differed substantially. Health Extension Workers in Adwa Woreda were more likely to call ambulances due to support from the Health Development Army and a functioning referral system. In Kafa Zone, some Health Extension Workers were discouraged from calling ambulances as they were used for other purposes. In Afar Region, few Health Extension Workers were called to assist women as most women give birth at home with Traditional Birth Attendants unless they need to travel to health facilities for Emergency Obstetric and Newborn Care. Initiatives to reduce delays can improve access to maternal health services, especially when Health Extension Workers are supported by the Health Development Army and a functioning referral system, but district (woreda) health offices should ensure that ambulances are used as intended.

Gifted & Green

Environmental studies provide an ideal opportunity for gifted children of any age to build critical and creative-thinking skills while also building skills in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) areas. Exploring issues related to sustainability and environmental concerns permits gifted learners to identify problems, develop research questions, gather and analyze data, develop possible solutions, and disseminate this information to others. Green issues are especially appealing to gifted learners as they are sensitive to the world around them and often long to engage in projects that touch on issues facing their communities. Although the relevance to STEM subjects is clear, green investigations can also build skills across the content areas, in diverse subjects such as English/language arts, social studies, music, and art. A variety of resources, including national and Common Core State Standards, exist that can help parents and teachers create investigations for gifted children that permit them to be both gifted and green.

A Beginner’s Guide to Randomized Evaluations in Development Economics

I. IntroductionRandomized evaluations in development economics are receiving considerable attention; there has been a dramatic increase in randomized evaluations carried out not only by academia but also by governments, international agencies, and non-governmental organizations to test the effectiveness of a specific program or policy (Banerjee, and Duflo 2009).1 The rise in randomized evaluations is in line with the credibility revolution in empirical economics which emphasizes the identification of causal effects (Angrist, and Pischke 2010). Previously, sensitivity analysis, where researchers presented the rigorousness of their results with different specifications or functional forms had been considered a salutary econometric practice (Leamer 1985). However, the sensitivity analysis was limited in identifying the causal effect of a program because it is difficult to know the difference between the outcome a participant experienced under the program and the experienced outcome if the participant did not take part in the program. Although the causal effect of a program for each person is not identifiable (this is the fundamental problem of causal inference), a randomized evaluation makes it possible to create grouplevel counterfactual which is free from selection bias, and to provide internally valid estimates of the average treatment effect (Rubin 1974).In this paper we provide a brief overview of the important steps in planning and implementing a randomized evaluation from start to finish including issues such as research question development, local partner institution, IRB (Institutional Review Board), PAP (Pre-Analysis Plan), sample size calculation, random sampling, randomization, survey implementation, data entry, and data analysis.2II. Research Question DevelopmentNot all research questions need a randomized evaluation to be answered, thus, it is important to ask the right research question that requires a randomized evaluation. If we are interested to know what the needs are in a specific context, then descriptive need assessment can be enough. However, if we want to know whether a program or policy works or not, then we need to conduct a randomized evaluation to answer this question. Furthermore, randomized evaluations should be performed if we aim to answer one of the following research questions. 1) Which elements of the program matter the most? 2) Which of the two different programs produce a better outcome? 3) Are there complementarities among the programs? 4) Can the results from one context be replicated in another context?A good place to start developing research questions is with existing literature reviews. We can quickly summarize the information in existing research regarding issues of interest. The information can also help identify the most important knowledge gaps, where new research questions begin. High quality literature review on randomized evaluations can be found within institutions such as Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL) at MIT, Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA), the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie), and the Development Impact Evaluation Initiative (DIME) in the Research Group of the World Bank.3 Many academic journals in economics, which are all reliable resources, also publish up-to-date literature reviews. These journals include The Handbook of Economics series, the Annual Review of Economics, the Journal of Economic Perspectives, and the Journal of Economic Literature.After developing research questions for a randomized evaluation, the next step is to incorporate the questions into the survey questionnaire to analyze the research hypotheses and its possible mechanisms. It is useful to review the existing survey questionnaire of related research, which is often available on its author's personal webpage or on the publication journal's website.4 Another good source for questionnaire development is the government's or multilateral organization's survey questionnaire such as Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). …

STFM RESPONDS TO COMMUNITY PRECEPTOR SHORTAGE

Primary care clerkship directors are finding it increasingly difficult to obtain clinical training sites.[1][1] To begin to address this challenge, STFM is implementing new initiatives to: In order to determine the quality of current clerkship experiences, STFM developed research questions for a

Major Fallacies Surrounding Stone Artifacts and Assemblages

While lithic objects can potentially inform us about past adaptations and behaviors, it is important to develop a comprehensive understanding of all of the various processes that influence what we recover from the archaeological record. We argue here that many assumptions used by archaeologists to derive behavioral inferences through the definition, conceptualization, and interpretation of both individual stone artifact forms and groups of artifacts identified as assemblages do not fit squarely with what we have learned from both ethnographic sources and analyses of archaeological materials. We discuss this in terms of two fallacies. The first is the fallacy of the “desired end product” in stone artifact manufacture, which also includes our ability to recognize such end products. The second fallacy has to do with the notions that lithic assemblages represent simple accumulations of contemporary behaviors and the degree to which the composition of the depositional units we study reliably match the kinds of activities that took place. Although it is beyond the scope of this paper to offer a comprehensive set of new methodologies and theoretical perspectives to solve these problems, our goal here is to stress the importance of rethinking some of our most basic assumptions regarding the nature of lithic objects and how they become part of the archaeological record. Such a revision is needed if we want to be able to develop research questions that can be addressed with the data we have available to us.

Mistaken Inferences from Advertising Conversations: A Modest Research Agenda

I review the changing advertising landscape and suggest that the definition of advertising has inherently changed. Using the current advertising context, I develop research questions that consumer behavior scholars are well poised to address. This research agenda is rooted in real-world observations about advertising and can help us develop new theories about when, how, and why advertising influences and persuades consumers. A recurring theme in this article is that consumers may be misled due to information overload from multiple channels and sources. I use the advertising-as-conversation metaphor to derive hypotheses and test one such hypothesis in an experiment. I end with a summary and discussion of advertising impact measurement.

Locating and leveraging inside sources of consumer insights

Purpose Inside sources are people who interact with target consumers on a frequent or intense basis. They can have powerful insights about why consumers behave as they do. This paper aims to focus on how to identify, interview and leverage inside sources to uncover new insights about target consumers and how to better engage with them. Design/methodology/approach This paper provides field-tested techniques on how to elicit the most useful insights from inside sources. The paper demonstrates how the generated insights can be used for everything from more precise targeting and message development to modifying products and services to increase loyalty, usage frequency or switching behavior. Findings Generating novel insights about a unique target market involves four steps: identify, locate, interview inside sources and then apply the insights. Research limitations/implications There can be limitations to interviewing inside sources, such as interviewer bias, respondent bias and the Hawthorne effect. Some individuals react differently to different events, and some insights are not generalizable. Practical implications Costly wide-scale surveys, laddering interviews or focus groups are not always needed to uncover insights about target consumers. Within 24 hours, inside sources can produce the insights needed to better market products, develop research questions or design interventions. Originality/value Generating novel insights about a unique target market can be done quickly and inexpensively. It involves leveraging inside sources – those people who interact frequently or intensively with target consumers.