Determine Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions of a Mill According to the Greenhouse Gas Protocol

This article discusses the challenges of adapting to and mitigating climate change through sustainable resource management in the agri-food sector. These aspects are mandatory obligations for businesses under new EU directives and regulations. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions must be controlled at every stage of the value chain, from the acquisition of raw materials to transportation and cooperation with suppliers. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the areas generating GHG emissions in the agri-food enterprise toward the development of guidelines for the sustainable development of domestic food production. This paper presents a GHG study in three scopes at one of the mills in Poland based on the GHG protocol methodology. The analysis of consumption of energy carriers was used to determine GHG emissions (Scopes 1 and 2), and the total amounted to about 2.1 million kg CO2eq (the share of Scope 1 was about 16% and Scope 2 as high as 83%), and the average carbon footprint of flour production in terms of unit weight was 0.040 kg CO2eq/kg. Extending the analysis to Scope 3, the emissions associated with this scope accounted for the largest share (92%), while Scopes 1 and 2 accounted for only 8%. The determined carbon footprint (considering the three GHG emission scopes) was 0.52 kg CO2eq/kg. In Scope 3, the largest contribution was from category 1 emissions (92%) related to grain cultivation, and category 5 (6%) were emissions related to the transportation of sold products. The smallest impact is from category 3 emissions related to the management of generated waste. Regular calculation and reporting of emissions in each area enables the company to more fully understand its environmental impact, identify risks and implement changes that bring financial and environmental benefits.

APPROXIMATE CALCULATION OF N2O FORMATION IN HETEROTROPHIC DENITRIFICATION PROCESSES OF WASTEWATER DURING BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

This article addresses the important ecological issue of quantitatively determining greenhouse gas emissions – nitrous oxide – from municipal wastewater treatment facilities, which is a factor in global climate change. Data from scientific research indicate that deep biological treatment of nitrogen compounds at wastewater treatment facilities significantly contributes to the gross emissions of nitrous oxide from industrial facilities. Direct measurements of nitrous oxide emissions from biological treatment facilities in Ukraine have not been conducted. The aim of this study is to assess the potential emissions of the greenhouse gas N2O during the biological treatment of municipal wastewater in aeration tanks operating under the traditional, non-zoned scheme in Ukraine, which ensures deep nitrification. The study was conducted at municipal wastewater treatment facilities equipped with 3-channel aeration tanks. The process of wastewater treatment in aeration tanks operating under the traditional non-zoned scheme is fully aerobic and characterized by deep nitrification. Measurements of hydrochemical indicators of wastewater composition (BOD5, N–NH4, N–NO2, and N–NO3, Kjeldahl nitrogen) were carried out using certified methods in an accredited laboratory. It was found that biological treatment of municipal wastewater exclusively under aerobic conditions does not effectively remove nitrates from the wastewater. The nitrogen balance in incoming and treated wastewater was calculated, and the formation of N2O in the processes of suppressed denitrification was quantitatively determined. The consumption of nitrogen for the formation of excess activated sludge biomass, the efficiency of nitrification to nitrates, and the probable formation of N2O as a result of inhibition of the final heterotrophic denitrification reaction (reduction of N2O to N2) were calculated. The results showed that the maximum value of the N2O emission coefficient (the ratio of formed N2O to the concentration of total nitrogen entering the treatment process) at the studied facility could range from 3.24 % to 6.47 %, which is consistent with direct measurement data conducted at operating treatment facilities by foreign scientists. The study results confirm that modern technologies for deep biological wastewater treatment should consider not only effective removal of biogenic elements but also the minimization of greenhouse gas emissions.

Gypsum and structure lime amendments in boreal agricultural clay soils: Do climate emissions compromise water quality benefits?

We examine cost-effectiveness and social net benefits of using soil amendments, gypsum and structure lime, in reducing phosphorus loading while accounting for the climate emissions from both amendments. Recent field experiments and large-scale pilots in Finland and Sweden suggest that both gypsum and structure lime improve soil structure and can reduce total P loading from clayey fields but differ as soil amendments. While gypsum does not change soil pH, structure lime helps to adjust it to a desired level. Drawing on literature, gypsum is postulated to reduce both dissolved (25%) and particulate losses (50%) of phosphorus, while structure lime is postulated to reduce only particulate phosphorus (40%). Life-cycle analysis is applied to determine greenhouse gas emissions from both soil amendments. We examine 5 and 10 years impacts on phosphorus loss by choosing doses and their timing accordingly. Both amendments provide the highest water quality benefits on erodible soils or soils with high soil phosphorus. Accounting for climate issues drastically changes the picture. Greenhouse gas emissions from gypsum production are 14.43 kgCO2e ha-1, and those from structure lime from pristine materials are 1837 kgCO2e ha-1. Cost-effectiveness of P load reduction including carbon price of GHG emissions is 59 € kg-1P for gypsum and 122 € kg-1P for structure lime. At the national level (application to 0.54 Mha), differences in greenhouse gas emissions without soil emissions are huge and in favour of gypsum (0.048 Mt and 1.04 Mt). Structure lime from recycled zero-emission materials performs well but its supply is very limited.

Life Cycle Economic and Environmental Assessment of Producing Synthetic Jet Fuel Using CO2/Biomass Feedstocks.

The aviation industry is responsible for over 2% of global CO2 emissions. Synthetic jet fuels generated from biogenic feedstocks could help reduce life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to petroleum-based fuels. This study assesses three processes for producing synthetic jet fuel via the synthesis of methanol using water and atmospheric CO2 or biomass. A life cycle assessment and cost analysis are conducted to determine GHG emissions, energy demand, land occupation, water depletion, and the cost of producing synthetic jet fuel in Switzerland. The results reveal that the pathway that directly hydrogenates CO2 to methanol exhibits the largest reductions in terms of GHG emission (almost 50%) compared to conventional jet fuel and the lowest production cost (7.86 EUR kgJF-1); however, its production cost is currently around 7 times higher than the petroleum-based counterpart. Electrical energy was found to be crucial in capturing CO2 and converting water into hydrogen, with the sourcing and processing of the feedstocks contributing to 79% of the electric energy demand. Furthermore, significant variations in synthetic jet fuel cost and GHG emissions were shown when the electricity source varies, such as utilizing grid electricity pertaining to different countries with distinct electricity mixes. Thus, upscaling synthetic jet fuels requires energy-efficient supply chains, sufficient feedstock, large amounts of additional (very) low-carbon energy capacity, suitable climate policy, and comprehensive environmental analyses.

Determine greenhouse gas emissions from landfills and suggest a household solid waste classification system in Dong Hoi, Quang Binh province

Determine greenhouse gas emissions from landfills and suggest a household solid waste classification system in Dong Hoi, Quang Binh province

Urbanization influences dissolved organic matter characteristics but microbes affect greenhouse gas concentrations in lakes

Recognition and prediction of dissolved organic matter (DOM) properties and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is critical to understanding climate change and the fate of carbon in aquatic ecosystems, but related data is challenging to interpret due to covariance in multiple natural and anthropogenic variables with high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Here, machine learning modeling combined with environmental analysis reveals that urbanization (e.g., population density and artificial surfaces) rather than geography determines DOM composition and properties in lakes. The structure of the bacterial community is the dominant factor determining GHG emissions from lakes. Urbanization increases DOM bioavailability and decreases the DOM degradation index (Ideg), increasing the potential for DOM conversion into inorganic carbon in lakes. The traditional fossil fuel-based path (SSP5) scenario increases carbon emission potential. Land conversion from water bodies into artificial surfaces causes organic carbon burial. It is predicted that increased urbanization will accelerate the carbon cycle in lake ecosystems in the future, which deserves attention in climate models and in the management of global warming.

Greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprint of maize-based feed products for animal farming in Thailand.

Due to the growing demand for livestock products both within the country and in foreign markets, there is a need to boost the production of maize-based animal feed in Thailand. However, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the potential for reducing these emissions through the production of various types of animal feed remain ambiguous. Thus, this study is aimed at estimating GHG emissions from broiler, layer, and swine feed production in Thailand and identifying economic advantages of alternative methods to mitigate those emissions. Field surveys were carried out to quantify the input and output of energy and materials in 10 commercial feed mills so as to determine greenhouse gas emissions using proper emission factors. The scope of this study is based on the cradle-to-gate approach. The functional unit used for greenhouse gas evaluation was kg CO2-eq/t of feed. Total greenhouse gas emissions from broiler, layer, and swine feed production were found to be 650 ± 20, 706 ± 20, and 466 ± 20 kg CO2-eq/t of feed, respectively. Layer feed production created the highest greenhouse gas emissions, 1.09 and 1.52 times that of broiler and swine feed production, respectively. This is because layer feed required intensive fish meal (FM) as protein sources for improving egg quality. In broiler and swine feed production, the most significant emissions are attributed to the use of maize grain (MG) and soybean meal (SBM) as sources of carbohydrate and protein in those feeds. However, animal feed production operation at the existing condition still emits CO2 to the atmosphere as CO2 fixation efficiencies of 69.3, 67.5, and 75.9% for broiler, layer, and swine feed, respectively. From the sustainable resource consumption scenarios in broiler, layer, and swine feed production, approximately 39.6, 49.6, and 43.3% reduced carbon emissions could be achieved by using MG rotated with SB in the maize plantation phase and substituting FM, wheat grain and fossil fuel needed in the manufacturing process with SBM, locally-produced tapioca chips and biomass energy. Consequently, the potential cost savings of such replacements were determined to be 54.0, 62.5, and 29.7 USD/t of feed, respectively.

Yükseköğretim Kurumlarında Karbon Ayak İzinin Belirlenmesi: Iğdır Üniversitesi Örneği

University campuses are centers of living where all kinds of sociocultural activities take place and where students spend most of their time throughout their education life. As a result of these activities, it is inevitable that atmospheric greenhouse gas levels in campuses will increase. One of the most common approaches for determining greenhouse gas emissions is the "carbon footprint". Carbon footprint is an indirect representation of the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere as a result of the activities of an organization or individual. This article deals with the calculation stages of the carbon footprint resulting from the activities of Iğdır University Şehit Bülent Yurtseven campus and suggestions for reducing it. The calculations include various activities of the campus, and they contain generally accepted emission scopes. DEFRA guidance was used in the carbon footprint calculation of the campus and the base year for the calculation was 2022. The carbon footprint of Iğdır University in 2022 was calculated as 3679.66 tCO2e/year and 1.27x10-3 tCO2e/m2 on annual and area basis, respectively. These emissions are caused by factors such as natural gas consumption, electricity consumption, transport, water consumption and waste amount. The largest emission source is natural gas consumption (37%), followed by emissions from minibus transportation (31%). In conclusion, universities have an important role to play in identifying innovative approaches to measuring, controlling, and reducing carbon footprints by bringing together people with different skills and experience, advanced research facilities and resources. This article is thought to contribute to the literature in determining the process of preparing a university's greenhouse gas inventory, the possibilities of the university to achieve carbon neutrality and emission reduction strategies through the example of Iğdır University.

APPROACHES TO ESTIMATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM THE BY-PRODUCTS OF LIVESTOCK FARMING IN UKRAINE

Climate change due to human activity in developed countries leads to numerous cases of deterioration of living conditions in all regions of the planet. However, it is possible to change this situation. To do this, it is necessary to maintain the global temperature at today’s level by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Agriculture makes a significant contribution to anthropogenic global warming, particularly livestock. Animal manure and the soils cultivated with it are the most important sources of emissions from livestock after intestinal methane. Experts estimate that nitrous oxide and methane produced in pastures and manure processing systems can account for up to a quarter of on-farm emissions, so it is important to identify strategies to reduce the flow of these gases. To solve the problem of global warming, it is necessary to control a number of positions, one of which is the assessment of actual emissions of greenhouse gases and, in particular, in the production of livestock products. The article presents a new approach to increasing the accuracy of greenhouse gas emissions calculations. To determine the gross energy in the methodology of effective practice, the values of the indicators of clean energy are used to maintain the needs of animals for the continuation of vital activities and taking into account their productivity. When expanding the approaches for obtaining raw data for determining greenhouse gas emissions from by-products of livestock farming to determine gross energy, use the indicators of the content of crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and non-nitrogenous extractives in the diet. The yield of animal excrement is calculated based on the weight and composition of the feed, taking into account the digestibility of the organic matter of the feed and the relative content of organic matter. When separating livestock by-products (organic waste) into solid and liquid fractions, the actual data characterizing the quality of separation on individual elements of the technological line are the mass and moisture content of effluents entering processing and obtained at the exit, the mass and moisture content of the liquid fraction, and the mass and moisture content of the solid fraction.

Distribution chain diagrams for fresh fruit supply chains: A baseline for emission assessment

Background: Globalisation has undoubtedly revolutionised the way modern society functions by connecting different people, economies, cultures and technology. This integration depends on the adequate movement of goods by increasingly more complex and longer global supply chains (SCs). The structure of the distribution chain and the individual activities that jointly facilitate the transportation of commodities such as fresh fruit have not been well defined, making it difficult and ambiguous to determine greenhouse gas emissions. Mapping the various distribution scenarios of fruit and stating the emission-generating activities not only enable the analysis and management of these activities but also provide a basis for calculating emissions.Objectives: The key objective is to describe all the physical emission-generating distribution activities that take place during the international export of fresh fruit from South Africa. These activities were used to create distribution chain diagrams that define the structure of fresh fruit distribution.Method: To identify activities, a literature review, direct observation of distribution activities at logistical facilities and unstructured interviews with operational managers at these facilities were performed. Scenario planning was used to combine generic activities into realistic distribution chain diagrams. The activities and diagrams were validated by semistructured interviews with four industry experts.Results: Following the identification of emission-generating activities, five generic distribution chain diagrams were created that should represent all possible distribution scenarios for fresh fruit.Conclusion: The generic distribution scenarios not only capture the various methods by which fresh fruit is exported from South Africa but also form the basis of seven important emission-related managerial practices.

Determinants of emissions pathways in the coupled climate-social system.

The ambition and effectiveness of climate policies will be essential in determining greenhouse gas emissions and, as a consequence, the scale of climate change impacts1,2. However, the socio-politico-technical processes that will determine climate policy and emissions trajectories are treated as exogenous in almost all climate change modelling3,4. Here we identify relevant feedback processes documented across a range of disciplines and connect them in a stylized model of the climate-social system. An analysis of model behaviour reveals the potential for nonlinearities and tipping points that are particularly associated with connections across the individual, community, national and global scales represented. These connections can be decisive for determining policy and emissions outcomes. After partly constraining the model parameter space using observations, we simulate 100,000 possible future policy and emissions trajectories. These fall into 5 clusters with warming in 2100 ranging between 1.8 °C and 3.6 °C above the 1880-1910 average. Public perceptions of climate change, the future cost and effectiveness of mitigation technologies, and the responsiveness of political institutions emerge as important in explaining variation in emissions pathways and therefore the constraints on warming over the twenty-first century.

Greenhouse gas emission of agricultural inputs on peat soil at corporate and smallholder oil palm farmers

Greenhouse gas emission rate in peat soil under oil palm plantation comes to attractive interest to control the environment. Revealing the indirect emission of the applied input of oil palm cultivation in peat soil in the area, would contribute on the improvement of the greenhouse gas emission data exposure. The objective of this study was to determine greenhouse gas emissions generated from the oil palm cultivation applied inputs. Field observation was conducted in Labuhan Batu, North Sumatra, Indonesia, in 2013-2014, at both corporate and smallholder farmers as well. CO2-eq emission of the applied agricultural inputs was calculated by means of MILCA- JEMAI© application software. CO2 equivalent emissions from applied inputs of corporate peatland oil palm plantation was calculated based on data in 2012 amounted to 1013.7 kg CO2-eq ha1 year1. On smallholder farmers, it showed a 40 lower emission rate but with higher variability at 604 ± 238 kg CO2-eq ha1 year1. At the oil palm corporate, inorganic fertilizer application contributed a higher emission rate, followed by fuel use and pesticide applications. CO2-eq emission rate at smallholder farmers showed a similar pattern for inorganic fertilizer use. However, it showed higher emission from pesticide application rather than fuel use.

Carbon_in_WaterDSS: A new tool to determine GHG emissions in quasi-real time for irrigation systems

Climate change is a reality, and irrigated agriculture is a significant human activity that contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and, therefore, to global warming. Traditionally, the carbon footprint associated with GHG emissions has been computed by fixed electrical energy transformation rates (kgCO2e kWh−1). However, this transformation rate is not constant because it depends on a country's power generation mix, which combines of the energy sources supplying a country (coal, nuclear, wind, photovoltaic, hydraulic, natural gas, etc.). Fixed transformation rates have been traditionally employed to estimate the carbon footprint that derives from irrigated agricultural activity. Nevertheless, these fixed rates can be inaccurate for not considering variations over time. Thus, in this work, a new decision support system called Carbon_in_WaterDSS was developed in Python and applied to a real-world scenario to determine a dynamic and realistic energy transformation rate and to compute an accurate carbon footprint. Different time periods were considered according to irrigation stakeholders' water management criteria, crop water requirements, energy costs and pricing electricity tariff periods. The results show that the energy transformation rate and, therefore, the carbon footprint value vastly vary during the irrigation season and over for a day (from 0.066 kgCO2e kWh−1 to 0.490 kgCO2e kWh−1), unlike the values found in other works. This work also highlights how farmers choose the most economical energy periods to use conventional electricity. However, this hourly choice criterion is not the option that generates the lowest carbon footprint value in most analysed years.

Impact of replacing ICE bus fleet with electric bus fleet in Africa: A lifetime assessment

It is globally agreed that electrification of the transportation fleet will be a significant step in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This study assesses the impact of replacing internal combustion engine bus with electric bus fleets in African countries. The assessment includes the impact of solar charging of an electric bus fleet. Emission factors based on the energy mix in the various African countries were used to determine greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation. Data from a standard public bus fleet was used as a comparison for the internal combustion engine (ICE) fleet. Lifetime costs favor operating an electric bus by 62% and hybrid-electric bus by 50% when charging is done from the national grid. Solar charging has the potential to further reduce lifetime costs by at least 19% and at most 47%. ICE bus emits 3.46 times the emissions of an electric bus. If charging is done by solar, then ICE bus emits 329 times more. Since there is a significant tariff reduction for fuel compared to electricity in African countries, a recommendation is made to reverse this to promote the use of electric vehicles. It is recommended that government fleet transition to electric vehicles.

The puzzle of greenhouse gas footprints of oil abundance

The present inquiry lays a groundwork for the analysis of the net greenhouse gas (GHG) footprint of oil in the oil-abundant settings. To address the research question, the study puts forward a three-sector decision model, which provides a common ground for the assessment of the interaction of the structuralist and institutional factors influencing environmental pollution in the oil-reliant economies. The study shows that fossil-fuel abundance triggers forces, which induce diametrically opposed effects concerning atmospheric pollution. These are the rising carbon-intensive oil extraction and processing and fossil-fueled power generation versus shrinkage of the carbon-intensive manufacturing and growth of the low-carbon tertiarization. The theoretical analysis enables compartmentalization of the essential factors, which determine GHG emissions in the respective countries. To assess the significance of the proposed theoretical framework, the study employs multivariate panel co-integration techniques and two-stage fixed effects estimations for a dataset of 38 oil-producing countries for the time period between 1960 and 2018. In contrast to the existing literature, this study drives apart from the black box approaches that employ just one omnibus variable, per capita income.

Is there a joint lever? Identifying and ranking factors that determine GHG emissions and profitability on dairy farms in Bavaria, Germany

Farms are increasingly expected to contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation actions to help governments to achieve GHG reduction commitments. In order to identify key mechanisms for GHG mitigation on farms, many studies use mass flow simulation or optimization models. However, by assuming “best practice” and not accounting for “real farm practices”, these models cannot predict variability between farms. In contrast, studies that include variability between farms can identify determinants that are important factors to reduce GHG emissions. From a farmer's perspective, it is often crucial that these mechanisms also increase farm profitability. The objectives of this article are (1) to explore factors that jointly affect GHG emissions and profitability of dairy farms and, (2) to assess if these factors cause synergies or trade-offs to simultaneously reduce GHG emissions and increase profitability. To assess variability between farms, we utilize detailed site- or farm-specific input variables for a large number of farms. To this end, we combined a detailed high quality dataset of 92 farms for the year 2013 in Bavaria, Germany. In relation to GHG emissions, we collected emission factors from national and international life cycle analysis databases, and applied national and site-specific GHG emission models. Our global sensitivity analysis identified five factors affecting GHG emissions per kg of fat and protein corrected milk in the following order of relative importance (i.e. proportion of farm variability explained): feed use efficiency (26%), weighted nitrogen balance (23%), site specific nitrogen emission factor (15%), milk yield (13%), and replacement rate (8%). Of these five factors, feed use efficiency and milk yield were also relatively important factors for profitability. However, milk yield is strongly interlinked with beef output, an important by-product of our sample dairy farms, and thus needs special attention when defining effective GHG reduction targets. Site-specific nitrogen emission factors cannot be influenced directly by farmers. This leaves three main determinants for farm variability between farms of GHG emissions i.e. on field nitrogen use efficiency, feed use efficiency and replacement rate. Since feed use efficiency was also identified as an important factor increasing profitability, this could be addressed by advisory services assessing synergies between profitability and GHG emissions. On field nitrogen use efficiency and replacement rate were not identified as an important factor affecting profitability and thus may be addressed by additional incentives for farmers, advisory service, or stricter regulations.

Hydrogen and hydrogen-derived fuels through methane decomposition of natural gas – GHG emissions and costs

Abstract Hydrogen can be produced from the decomposition of methane (also called pyrolysis). Many studies assume that this process emits few greenhouse gas (GHG) because the reaction from methane to hydrogen yields only solid carbon and no CO2. This paper assesses the life-cycle GHG emissions and the levelized costs for hydrogen provision from methane decomposition in three configurations (plasma, molten metal, and thermal gas). The results of these configurations are then compared to electrolysis and steam methane reforming (SMR) with and without CO2 capture and storage (CCS). Under the global natural gas supply chain conditions, hydrogen from methane decomposition still causes significant GHG emissions between 43 and 97 g CO2-eq./MJ. The bandwidth is predominately determined by the energy source providing the process heat, i.e. the lowest emissions are caused by the plasma system using renewable electricity. This configuration shows lower GHG emissions compared to the “classical” SMR (99 g CO2-eq./MJ) but similar emissions to the SMR with CCS (46 g CO2-eq./MJ). However, only electrolysis powered with renewable electricity leads to very low GHG emissions (3 g CO2-eq./MJ). Overall, the natural gas supply is a decisive factor in determining GHG emissions. A natural gas supply with below-global average GHG emissions can lead to lower GHG emissions of all methane decomposition configurations compared to SMR. Methane decomposition systems (1.6 to 2.2 €/kg H2) produce hydrogen at costs substantially higher compared to SMR (1.0 to 1.2 €/kg) but lower than electrolyser (2.5 to 3.0 €/kg). SMR with CCS has the lowest CO2 abatement costs (24 €/t CO2-eq., other > 141 €/t CO2-eq.). Finally, fuels derived from different hydrogen supply options are assessed. Substantially lower GHG emissions, compared to the fossil reference (natural gas and diesel/gasoline), are only possible if hydrogen from electrolysis powered by renewable energy is used (>90% less). The other hydrogen pathways cause only slightly lower or even higher GHG emissions.

Is there climate policy integration in European Union energy efficiency and renewable energy policies? Yes, no, maybe

AbstractThe integration of climate policy concerns in other policy areas where decisions are taken that determine greenhouse gas emissions is a prerequisite for effectively mitigating climate change. There are particularly strong interlinkages between energy and climate policy as the major part of greenhouse gas emissions is related to energy supply and use. We compile a set of five output‐focused indicators for assessing climate policy integration (political commitment, functional overlap, policy instruments, weighting, and time perspective). We then apply the criteria for an appraisal of climate policy integration in European Union (EU) energy policy during the last decade; that is, we focus on climate policy integration from a horizontal perspective. The focus of our research lies on the comparison of the Renewable Energy and the Energy Efficiency Directives of the Energy Union Package with their predecessors. Our results show that climate change mitigation is a key objective in these documents. The energy policy objectives are generally synergetic with climate policy. The Energy Union Package makes progress in some areas like the more stringent EU targets for renewable energy and energy efficiency or the more stringent sustainability criteria for biofuels. However, some conflicting issues arise. The shift from national to an overall EU renewables target and the change towards more market‐oriented support schemes might together with the elimination of preferential grid access for renewable electricity entail negative impacts on renewable investment and on achieving emission reductions. It remains to be seen whether the adaptations in EU energy policy will lead to the required acceleration of the energy transition.

Intellectual analysis and estimation of gross greenhouse gas emissions

Currently, the system of accounting and monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions is being formed in the Russian Federation. It should be noted that within the framework of the system being formed, the transport sector is considered as the main contributor that generates large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions in cities and on busy federal highways. At the same time, it is proposed to take into account emissions directly when burning fuel only by road, city electric, rail, water and air transport. The article discusses methods for estimating gross emissions from road facilities using data mining methods aimed at verifying the results obtained. The article also presents the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions for road facilities in the pilot region with a description of the verification algorithm for the results obtained. The results of testing the methods for determining greenhouse gas emissions by road facilities showed that this calculation method can be used in estimating greenhouse gas emissions at road facilities, however, reliable baseline data for calculating gross greenhouse gas emissions can only be obtained by analyzing the activities of economic entities in transport and in the road sector. It should be borne in mind that business entities are not obliged to provide information constituting commercial secrets from their point of view. Therefore, the results obtained are of an estimated nature and relate only to those objects, data on which could be obtained from official statistics and free sources, while the actual amount of greenhouse gas emissions from road facilities in the pilot region during the period under review may be significantly higher.

Decreasing the carbon footprint of an intensive rice-based cropping system using conservation agriculture on the Eastern Gangetic Plains

Emerging conservation agriculture (CA) technologies are being applied in rice-upland cropping systems and their potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions of the whole rice-based cropping systems could be significant in South Asia especially if they increase soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. A streamlined life cycle assessment was conducted in the Eastern Gangetic Plains (Bangladesh) to determine greenhouse gas emissions from successive crops of monsoon rice (Oryza sativa), mustard (Brassica juncea) and irrigated rice under CA practices in contrast with the conventional crop establishment practice while accounting for changes in SOC. The life cycle greenhouse gas tonne−1 rice equivalent yield was assessed for four cropping practices: a) traditional crop establishment practices with farmers’ practice of minimal residue return, or b) CT with return of increased residues; c) strip planting (for mustard)/transplanting on non-puddled soils (for rice) with farmers’ practice of minimal residue return or; d) strip planting/non-puddled transplanting with increased residue return. The global warming potential values for the 100-year timescale were used to calculate CO2eq emissions within the system boundary. The net life cycle greenhouse gas emissions after allowing for changes in SOC sequestration varied from 0.73 to 1.12 tonne CO2eq tonne−1 rice equivalent yield. In the annual cropping system, methane (CH4) released from on-farm stage of the life cycle assessment, particularly from the rice crops, represented the dominant contributor to life cycle greenhouse gas emissions. The greenhouse gas emitted by machinery usage during the on-farm stage (irrigated rice), CO2 emission from soil respiration (monsoon rice), and greenhouse gas related to manufacture of inputs (mustard) were secondary sources of emission, in that order of priority. The non-puddlled transplanting of soil with low and increased residue retention were the most effective greenhouse gas mitigation options when sequestered SOC was taken into account (they avoided 35% of the net life cycle footprints compared with current farmers’ practice) in footprints of component crops of the rice-upland cropping system. The CA approaches being developed for the Eastern Gangetic Plains involving strip planting or non-puddled transplanting of rice have potential to mitigate global warming potential of intensive rice-based triple cropping systems but the life cycle assessment approach needs to be applied to a more diverse range of rice-based cropping systems.