Stone Deterioration Research Articles

Digital 3D Borobudur – Integration of 3D surveying and modeling techniques

Abstract. The Borobudur temple (Indonesia) is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world, now listed as an UNESCO World Heritage Site. The present state of the temple is the result of restorations after being exposed to natural disasters several times. Today there is still a growing rate of deterioration of the building stones whose causes need further researches. Monitoring programs, supported at institutional level, have been effectively executed to observe the problem. The paper presents the latest efforts to digitally document the Borobudur Temple and its surrounding area in 3D with photogrammetric techniques. UAV and terrestrial images were acquired to completely digitize the temple, produce DEM, orthoimages and maps at 1:100 and 1:1000 scale. The results of the project are now employed by the local government organizations to manage the heritage area and plan new policies for the conservation and preservation of the UNESCO site. In order to help data management and policy makers, a web-based information system of the heritage area was also built to visualize and easily access all the data and achieved 3D results.

Exposure Factors Influence Stone Deterioration by Crystallization of Soluble Salts

The present work tries to determine the factors that influence the crystallization of soluble salts in the stone material used in the construction of buildings in Valencia (Spain). Samples are obtained from a building which has served to accomplish observations and laboratory experiments necessary in order to determine the pathology of deterioration of the material. It was particularized in the exposition conditions of the material as a base for determining the morphologies of deterioration caused by salts in the same lithotype. The main contribution is the petrological study from the architectural point of view considering its orientation, sunlight in façade, and so forth. This study proves that both material petrology (its mineralogy and texture) and the properties related to the movement of water inside rocks play a decisive role in the conservation and development of elements in the alteration.

Marble Characterization by Ultrasonic Methods

Ultrasonic techniques are increasingly being used in various fields such as mining, geotechnical, civil engineering, because they are non-destructive and easy to apply. These techniques are usually employed both in situ and in laboratory to characterize and determine the dynamic and physical properties of rocks. In cultural heritage, the characterization of marble statue by acoustic wave is a well-known non-destructive method. This paper undertakes a study of the Carrara marble that composes the statues exposed in the Château de Versailles gardens, in order to better understand the processes of deterioration affecting them. For this, 10cm side square plates of Carrara marble are artificially aged through heating/cooling thermal cycles performed on one face of the samples. Acoustic waves such as compressive, shear and Rayleigh are generated by 1MHz central frequency contact transducers exited by a voltage pulse generator. A laser vibrometry detection method is used in the case of Rayleigh wave detection. The transmission measurements point out a strong decrease of the wave speed as well as a dramatic decrease of the maximum frequency transmitted in conjunction with the weathering. The velocity of ultrasonic waves depends on the physical and mechanical properties of the stone (such as density, porosity, elastic constants, and structure), Therefore, correlating the changes in these properties with the measured ultrasonic velocity helps to provide classification schemes for evaluating the degree of stone deterioration Köhler (1991). Some classical tests such as drilling resistance and water absorption (contact sponge method and water drop test) were also performed in order to complete the results obtained by ultrasonic velocity method.

Pulsed Thermography for Depth Profiling in Marble Sulfation

Deterioration of stones is a complex problem and one of the main concern for people working in the field of conservation and restoration of cultural heritage. One important point in cultural heritage is to obtain information about the damage in a non-invasive way. By this paper, we propose a new non-invasive tool that permits evaluation of the thickness of \(\hbox {CaSO}_4{\cdot }2\hbox {H}_2\hbox {O}\) (gypsum) grown (sulfation) on marble stones, using a mathematical model on data detected by pulsed infrared thermography.

Detection of endolithic spatial distribution in marble stone.

The penetration of endolithic microorganisms, which develop to depths of several millimetres or even centimetres into the stone, and the diffusion of their extracellular substances speeds up the stone deterioration process. The aim of this study was to investigate, using a confocal laser scanning microscopy with a double-staining, a marble rock sample by observing the endolithic spatial distribution and quantifying the volume they occupied within the stone, in order to understand the real impact of these microorganisms on the conservation of stone monuments. Often the only factors taken into account by biodeterioration studies regarding endolithic microorganisms, are spread and depth of penetration. Despite the knowledge of three-dimensional spatial distribution and quantification of volume, it is indispensable to understand the real damage caused by endolithic microorganisms to stone monuments. In this work, we analyze a marble rock sample using a confocal laser scanning microscopy stained with propidium iodide and Concavalin-A conjugate with the fluorophore Alexa Fluor 488, comparing these results with other techniques (SEM microscope, microphotographs of polished cross-sections and thin-section, PAS staining methods), An image analysis approach has also been applied. The use of confocal laser scanning microscopy with double staining shows clear evidence of the presence of endolithic microorganisms (cyanobacteria and fungi) as well as the extracellular polymeric substance matrix in a three-dimensional architecture as part of the rock sample, this technique, therefore, seems very useful when applied to restoration interventions on stone monuments when endolithic growth is suspected.

Biological nanosilver particles for the protection of archaeological stones against microbial colonization

The inhabitation of microorganisms and their subsequent interaction with mineral matrix of the stone substrate under varied environmental conditions encourages deterioration of stones leading to the loss of strength, durability and aesthetic. This study highlighted the synthesis of nanosilver particles (AgNPs) using the biogenic volatiles of the bacterial strain Nesterenkonia halobia. The antimicrobial activities of AgNPs were evaluated against the gram positive bacterial strain Streptomyces parvullus and fungal strain Apergillus niger. Furthermore, the silver particles were mixed with two types of consolidation polymers and were used to coat the external surfaces of sandstone and limestone blocks. The stones treated with silicon polymer loaded with AgNPs showed an elevated antimicrobial potentiality against A. niger and S. parvullus. Scan electron microscope (SEM) and electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis of treated stones demonstrated the existence of nano-composite structures containing the elemental silver. Polymers functionalized with AgNPs can be used not only as potent biocides but also for the consolidation of the historic monuments and artifacts.

Accelerated stone deterioration induced by forest clearance around the Angkor temples

The present study provides the first quantitative assessment of the deteriorative impact of forest clearance on susceptible sandstone masonries. At Ta Keo, a 1000yr-old temple cleared of the Angkor forest in the early 20th century, GIS-based analysis of historic imagery indicates an average ten-fold increase in stone loss rates (0.2 instead of 0.02% per year). This accelerated decay is assigned to the climatic stress provoked by the exposure of fragile ornamented sandstones to the harsh impact of tropical sunshine and monsoon rains. Comparative climate monitoring with the Beng Mealea temple, still located in a forested environment, suggests a three-fold post-clearance increase in daily temperature and humidity ranges, which is conducive to enhanced swelling-shrinking movements responsible for accelerated sandstone contour scaling. Comparative visual assessment based on a customised 7-point scale of mechanical weathering confirms the protective role of canopy, with 79% of decorative motifs still almost free of mechanical weathering in the forest (against 7% at the cleared site). Disruption of archaeological structures by roots of individual trees can be locally observed at Angkor, but this does not negate the dominant overall buffering function of the forest cover. At Angkor and other cultural heritage sites, this bioprotective ‘umbrella effect’ should be considered as a valuable ecosystem service to be taken into account when defining and implementing strategies of sustainable management.

Different decay patterns observed in a nineteenth-century building (Palma, Spain)

The effects of atmospheric pollutants and climatic conditions were studied in a decayed column in the Seminary of Sant Pere. This nineteenth-century building is situated in the historic centre of Palma (Mallorca, Spain), less than 0.5 km from the sea. Samples were collected from the internal and external part of the crusts formed in the four sides of the column. The samples were analysed by means of thermal analysis, X-ray diffractometry, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and ion chromatography. Results show significant differences in the four sides of the column. A high degree of carbonate stone sulfation is observed in all of the samples analysed. A synergistic effect between atmospheric factors and micropollutants on the deterioration of stone is observed. A high uptake of atmospheric particulate matter is found in the external part of the black crusts.

Temperature Induced Internal Stress in Carrara Marble

Stone physical weathering, deterioration and damage (e.g. bowing, cracking, microfracturing) represent a serious problem for preservation of sculptural and architectural heritage objects. Although different mechanisms of such degradation might be responsible (e.g. chemical or biogenic), there is an understanding in the geological community that physical reasons for stone degradation and role of stress are of primary importance. In this work Carrara marble was a chosen for investigation: a calcitic type with ~20% of dolomite. Neutron diffraction was used to investigate the phase composition, the texture, and the strain/stress in calcite and dolomite phases in a bulk marble sample. Evolution of the stress state was studied by measuring strains in calcite and dolomite at two temperatures with clear evidence of thermally induced microstresses. Results are discussed in connection to the theory of composite materials and a micro-mechanical explanation of the general problem of marble deterioration is suggested.

Introduction to stone in historic buildings: characterization and performance

Interest in natural building stone, especially as used in historic buildings, is significant. This is demonstrated by the large number of publications that annually appear on stone, its properties, use, behaviour and treatment, and in the conferences on these subjects that are held in all parts of the world. In 2012 and 2013, the 12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone (New York, USA), CRYSPOM III – Crystallization in Porous Media (Troia, Portugal), Natural Stone Research and Heritage Stone Designation (Vienna, Austria), the EGU General Assembly Vienna 2012 Monuments under Threat and the International Conference on Built Heritage 2013: Monitoring Conservation Management (Milan, Italy) were held. Besides the proceedings, which usually result from such conferences, numerous other publications on stone and stone buildings regularly find their way into the public domain. Not least amongst these are a number of Geological Society Special Publications (SP) including SP205 Natural Stone, Weathering Phenomena, Conservation Strategies and Case Studies (Siegesmund et al. 2002), SP271 Building Stone Decay: From Diagnosis to Conservation (Přikryl & Smith 2007), SP331 Limestone in the Built Environment: Present-Day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past (Smith et al. 2010) and SP333 Natural Stone Resources for Historical Monuments (Přikryl & Torok 2010). This current volume, SP391, seeks to bring to the attention of the various professionals in the field – geologists, architects, engineers, conservators and conservation scientists – recent work centred on the characterization and performance of this important resource, and its use in historic buildings. This volume has wider relevance, including to those interested in the heritage of stone

The Activity of Oxygenic Photosynthetic Microbial Consortia on Different Granites

Deterioration of stone is a combined process caused by physical, chemical and biological factors especially, microbial growth. Various microorganisms are playing a key role in the weathering of historical artifacts, buildings, and monuments made of granite, marble, and other dimension stones. In this study, the biodeterioration of three types granite, Blue Pearl from Norway, Pergamon Grey from Turkey, and Rosa Porrino from Spain were studied for thirty days under laboratory conditions. The results showed that two of the granite surfaces, Pergamon Grey and Rosa Porrino, supported a heavy colonization of phototrophic microbial consortia. These results also showed that filamentous phototrophic microorganisms were dominant on the surfaces of the granites and indicated that the porosity, the availability of water and chemical composition of the granite have encouraged colonization and caused modification on the surfaces. The filamentous aggregates, possibly calcified fibrillar bodies in the inner parts of granites were also detected by SEM studies.

Addressing the microbiological problems of cultural property and archive documents after earthquake and tsunami

An International Symposium on the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Property with a focus on microbial biodeterioration of cultural property was held in Tokyo, Japan on December 5–7, 2012. In addition to microbial deterioration of stone, paper and wood, available technologies and innovations in removal and protection of cultural property, monitoring fungal contamination and classification of the contamination level, this symposium showed results dealing with cultural property after earthquake and tsunami as the key issues affecting the artifacts and cultural property highlighted at this symposium. Interestingly, it was found that salt in water can control the growth of molds and fungi on documents and less growth was observed when salinity was higher. This has a greater implication when dealing with large amounts of documents after natural disaster. The papers derived from invited speakers and also posters are being published in a dedicated volume of book available to research scientists, conservationists, applied biologists and graduate students working on related subjects.

Deterioration of different stones used in historical buildings within Nigde province, Cappadocia

The Cappadocia region hosts various historical buildings constructed by several civilisations from long in the past until more recently. Some of these are big and significant buildings and their artistic, cultural and aesthetical features are quite attention-grabbing. The stones used in most of these buildings have deteriorated due to various effects. The correct identification of the deterioration mechanisms is of fundamental importance to design retrofitting and restoration procedures. In this study we aimed to determine the engineering properties and deterioration of the stones widely used in the different historical buildings in the Nigde region that forms the southern boundary of Cappadocia. 17 block samples (2 marble, 2 travertine, 6 tuff, 5 ignimbrite and 1 andesite) were taken – in accordance with the obtained permits – from stones that had fallen from the buildings and could not be used again as part of any restoration. With the purpose ofidentifying the deterioration of the building stones due to their geological structure and external effects, chemical and petrographic analyses were conducted along with detailed field observations. To determine the geomechanical properties (dry unit weight, water absorption, effective porosity, P-wave velocity, uniaxial compressive strength, slake durability index, capillary water absorption, Bohme abrasion value and Schmidt hammer rebound value) of the stones comprehensive laboratory research was carried out. The main cause of the deterioration observed in ignimbrites (UK3) and tuffs (AK3) with low strength and high porosity was humidity, especially at the capillary level. Significant deterioration observed on some stone samples was also due to the use of stones that exhibited poorer properties than the rest, although they came from the same quarry. Adding the negative effects of ground and surface water on top of these, severe damage on the stones in the formof flaking, discolouration and loss of strength were observed.

A 3D INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR THE DOCUMENTATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICA L EXCAVATIONS

Abstract. Documentation of archaeological and cultural heritage sites is at the heart of the archaeological process and an important component in cultural heritage research, presentation and restorations. In 2012 the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage of Aosta Valley – IT (Soprintendenza per i Beni e le Attività Culturali della Region e Autonoma Valle d'Aosta) carried out a complex archaeological excavation in a composite archaeological context, situated an urban background: the Aosta city centre. This archaeological excavation has been characterized by the classical urban archaeological issues: little space, short time, complex stratigraphy. Moreover the investigations have come out several structures and walls that required safety and conservation measures. Ad hoc 3D solutions carried out a complete 3D survey of the area in 10 different time/situations of the Archaeological digs, chosen in collaborations with the archaeological staff. In this way a multi temporal 3D description of the site has been provided for the archaeological analysis and for the project of the restorations activities. The 3D surveys has been carried out integrating GPS, laser scanner technology and photogrammetry. In order to meet the needs of the site, and its complex logistics and to obtain products that guarantee the high quality and detail required for archaeological analysis, we have developed different procedures and methodologies: hdr imaging for 3D model with correct, consistent and uniform colours, noise filtering and people filtering, for the removal of interference between laser instrument and object of the survey, Advanced laser scanner triangulation, in order to consider both artificial and natural tie points, for a correct registration of a huge amount of scans. Single image orientation on 3D data, in order to integrate the laser data with data coming from digital photogrammetry (faster on the field than the laser scanner survey, than used in certain situations). The results of all these methodologies and procedures will be presented and described in the article. For the documentation of the archaeological excavations and for the management of the conservation activities (condition assessment, planning, and conservation work). Ad Hoc 3D solutions has costumized 2 special plug-ins of its own software platform Ad Hoc: Ad Hoc Archaeology and Ad Hoc Conservation. The software platform integrates a 3D database management system. All information (measurements, plotting, areas of interests…) are organized according to their correct 3D position. They can be queried using attributes, geometric characteristics or their spatial position. The Ad Hoc Archaeology plug-in allows archeologists to fill out UUSS sheets in an internal database, put them in the correct location within the 3D model of the site, define the mutual relations between the UUSS, divide the different archaeological phases. A simple interface will facilitate the construction of the stratigraphic chart (matrix), in a 3D environment as well (matrix 3D). The Ad Hoc Conservation plug-in permits conservators and restorers to create relationships between the different approaches and descriptions of the same parts of the monument, i.e.: between stratigraphyc units or historical phases and architectural components and/or decay pathologies. The 3D DBMS conservation module uses a codified terminology based on "ICOMOS illustrated glossary of stone deterioration" and other glossary. Specific tools permits restorers to compute correctly surfaces and volumes. In this way decay extension and intensity can be measured with high precision and with an high level of detail, for a correct time and costs estimation of each conservation step.

Predicting the long-term durability of building stones against freeze–thaw using a decay function model

Abstract The deterioration of stones under severe climatic conditions can affect their durability in the course of time. The long-term durability of stones due to freeze–thaw action is a determining factor for the stability of natural stones used in engineering works as building stones. In this study, the long-term durability of building stones against freeze–thaw action using a decay function model, proposed by Mutluturk et al. (2004) , was evaluated. The model postulates a first order process, and provides meaningful parameters for the integrity loss of stones against freeze–thaw action. For this purpose, 14 different building stones were selected and their petrographical characteristics, as well as some of physical and mechanical properties (density, porosity, water absorption, Brazilian tensile strength, and point load strength) were determined. Then, freeze–thaw test up to 30 cycles was carried out and, after every 5 cycles, the Brazilian tensile strength and point load strength of the stones were measured. The long-term durability of each stone against freeze–thaw was evaluated using the parameters of decay function model. This model shows that the rate of integrity loss differs for different stones, and stone durability against freeze–thaw can be predicted with good accuracy.

Condition assessment and preservation of open-air rock art panels during environmental change

Abstract Thousands of Neolithic and Bronze Age open-air rock art panels exist across the countryside in northern England. However, desecration, pollution, and other factors are threatening the survival of these iconic stone monuments. Evidence suggest that rates of panel deterioration may be increasing, although it is not clear whether this is due to local factors or wider environmental influences accelerated by environmental change. To examine this question, 18 rock art panels with varied art motifs were studied at two major panel locations at Lordenshaw and Weetwood Moor in Northumberland. A condition assessment tool was used to first quantify the level of deterioration of each panel (called “staging”). Stage estimates then were compared statistically with 27 geochemical and physical descriptors of local environments, such as soil moisture, salinity, pH, lichen coverage, soil anions and cation levels, and panel orientation, slope, and standing height. In parallel, climate modelling was performed using UKCP09 to assess how projected climatic conditions (to 2099) might affect the environmental descriptors most correlated with elevated stone deterioration. Only two descriptors significantly correlated (P

The effect of air pollution on stone decay: the decay of the Drachenfels trachyte in industrial, urban, and rural environments—a case study of the Cologne, Altenberg and Xanten cathedrals

Severe stone deterioration is evident at the Cologne cathedral. In particular, the “Drachenfels” trachyte, which was the building material of the medieval construction period, shows significant structural deterioration as well as massive formation of gypsum crusts. The present article investigates crust formation on limestone, sandstone, and volcanic rock from the Cologne cathedral as well as from the Xanten and Altenberg cathedrals. These three buildings, showing varying degrees of deterioration, are located in different areas and exposed to varying industrial, urban, and rural pollution. Thin laminar and black framboidal crusts form on calcareous as well as silicate stone. The lack of a significant intrinsic calcium and sulfur source for the formation of the gypsum crusts on the Drachenfels trachyte indicates major extrinsic environmental impact: a sufficient offer of SO x from pollutant fluxes as well as external calcium sources (e.g., pollution, mortars, neighboring calcite stones). Chemical analyses reveal strong gypsum enrichment within the crusts as well as higher concentrations of lead and other pollutants (arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin, etc.), which generally can be linked to traffic and industry. The formation of weathering crusts in an industrial environment is clearly distinguishable from that in rural areas. Scanning electron microscopy observations confirm that the total amount of pollution is less at the Altenberg cathedral than at the Cologne and Xanten cathedrals. XRF analyses show that the formation of gypsum occurs in lower amounts at Altenberg. This correlates well with the measured SO2 content and the intensity of the decay at the different locations. Furthermore, the different types of crusts, e.g., framboidal and laminar, can be differentiated and assigned to the different locations. The black weathering crusts on the silicate Drachenfels trachyte contribute to the degradation of the historic building material. They enhance mechanical moisture-related deterioration processes and the decay by chemical corrosion of rock-forming minerals. Although SO2 concentrations in air have shown a strong decrease over the past 30 years, degradation in connection with weathering crusts is still observed. This indicates that not only contemporary or recent emissions, but also past pollutant concentrations have to be considered.

Geotechnical Characterization of Sakakini’s Palace Stones and Other Construction Materials, Cairo-Egypt

The understanding of the geotechnical problems and failure mechanisms of stone structures of Sakakini palace (1897 after century) entails a comprehensive study on the mechanical behaviour of the stones and other construction materials. In addition to micro analysis, geological and geomorphologic interests, several investigations on stone deterioration and engineering geology were performed, First phase included more sophisticated techniques, which provided additional information on particular aspects of site deterioration and it included laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBs), electron probe micro analysis, micro XRD and XRF analyses, scanning electron microscope analysis coupled with EDX probing, transmission electron microscopy and grain size distribution analysis, permeability and pore size distribution of stone, mortars, core binders and other construction materials. Second phase included the determination of mechanical properties of building stones, such as compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and shear strength. To arrive at reliable values for these properties, a suitable number of samples should be extracted, prepared for testing, and properly tested. The test results are then analyzed to establish the investigated stone properties. The testing program includes extracting seven cylindrical cores from the basement stone walls of Sakakini’s mansion in down townCairo. The cores are extracted using rotary cylindrical diamond blade coring machine. The top and bottom surfaces of every core were prepared to be flat circular surfaces perpendicular to the vertical axis of the core. Because the palace is museum and attractive places for the tourists, core sampling could be carried out only at a limited number of locations under official permission. For the purpose, cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 42 - 44 mm and height of 90 - 100 mm, prepared by the use of a core drilling machine and some collected blocks from the archaeological site under investtigation were taken to determine the bulk structure, physical, short and long-term mechanical properties of the stone and other construction materials in the laboratory. A number of specimens prepared from these blocks were employed for testing. Furthermore, limitation due to the number of blocks was overcome by the determination of the in situ characteristics of the stones by Schmidt hammer tests, geo-tomographic investigations and rock mass classification on some stone rock structures where testing has been permitted. The objectives of the study are to provide a characterization of micro structures and the mechanical properties of the stones of Sakakini’s Mansion; describe the required testing plan; describe the test results and conclude the values of the basic mechanical properties of the building stones. The following sections provide detailed descriptions of the steps taken to achieve the objectives of the study. The purpose of the present research is to provide recommendations regarding the strengthening and the safety of architectural heritage under long and short-term loading. For this purpose, a set of experimental tests and of advanced numerical analyses are to be carried out.

Microbially induced deterioration of architectural heritages: routes and mechanisms involved

Since ancient time, magnificence and beauty have been the goals of architecture. Artists and architects used high strength, durable and beautiful stones like marble and limestone for the construction of monuments like Taj Mahal, Milan Cathedral, Roman Catacombs and Necropolis in Rome etc. These historic monuments are exposed to open air which allows the invading army of algae, cyanobacteria, fungi etc. to easily access them. The invasion of microorganisms and their subsequent interaction with mineral matrix of the stone substrate under varied environment conditions fosters deterioration of stones by multiple mechanisms resulting in loss of strength, durability, and aesthetic appearance. The review details about the major routes and mechanisms which led to biodeterioration, discusses current remedial methodologies and suggests future directions.

Petrophysical properties, composition and deterioration of the Calatorao biogenic stone: case of the sculptures masonry of the Valley of the Fallen (Madrid, Spain)

The huge sculptures placed outdoors in the Valley of the Fallen Memorial Park (El Escorial, Madrid) made with blocks of Black-Limestone from Calatorao-Zaragoza, Spain (BLCZ) and disposed on a concrete core exhibit weathering traces, flaking, saline efflorescence and falling fragments, currently represent a danger for visitors. Frost action is important in the Valley of the Fallen by the large number of freeze–thaw cycles produced during Sculptures‘live under a temperate Mediterranean climate with severe seasonality. The formation of fissures facilitates the water transport within the rock and the salt- and ice-induced deterioration. Temperate climates with frequent freezing and thawing cycles can be the most effective drivers of the visible physical weathering. In order to propose a suitable weathering model, collected black-limestones from sculptures and Calatorao quarries were analyzed by optical microscopy, environmental scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry (ESEM-EDS), inductively coupled mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and X-ray diffraction. Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), nitrogen absorption and helium pycnometry techniques were used for pore analyses of the BLCZ micro-blocks (10 × 10 × 10 cm) described in terms of pore size distribution, pore volume and specific surface area. The appreciable amount of organic matter was isolated by solvent extraction, acid treatment, flotation and perborate degradation followed by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS), Analytical Pyrolysis (Py-GC/MS), Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy and Raman techniques. Both weathered and fresh BLCZ samples contained more than 90 % calcite shells with circa 10 % of pyrite (fresh samples) or iron hydroxides (weathered samples), quartz grains, claystone and fossil organic matter consisting of a condensed matrix with polyalkyl chains and polycyclic methoxyl-lacking aromatic structures. The petrophysical analyses revealed volumes of pores, sized <0.025 μm obtained by N2 adsorption, of 3.18 × 10−3 cm3 g−1 while the measured porosity by MIP in the pore range from 0.005 to 200 μm was 3.30 × 10−3 cm3 g−1. These data could be explained by the existence of clay minerals and organic matter in the pore system less than 50 nm of diameter. Concerning BLCZ deterioration it was found that the porous framework of BLCZ was filled with sulphates formed from artificial cement observed in the sculptures inside trough a testing hole and from its intrinsic pyrite. The results suggested that although biological processes were not major agents in rock deterioration, there was also weak compatibility between sculptures‘constituents, (limestone, concrete and oxidized iron clamps) which under, continental Mediterranean conditions, were continuously releasing weathering compounds accelerating disruption of the cut-stone sculptures.