Detection Of Microplastics Research Articles

Standardization of FTIR-Based Methodologies for Microplastics Detection in Drinking Water: A Meta-Analysis Indeed and Practical Approach

The detection of microplastics (MPs) in drinking water presents significant environmental and public health challenges. This study comprises two stages: a meta-analysis aimed at standardizing Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) methods for MP detection, followed by the practical implementation of these findings in the laboratory. The review of studies conducted from 2019 to 2023 identifies 0.45 μm cellulose nitrate filters and Nile red staining as the most effective techniques for fluorescent detection. Experimental results demonstrate the superior retention capabilities of cellulose nitrate filters and the uniformity of Nile red staining. This dual approach not only optimizes water treatment processes but also enhances the accuracy of MP detection. The findings contribute to improved water quality management and public health protection by establishing robust protocols for MP analysis.

Extraction and analysis of microplastics in wastewater sludges of a multi-product pulp and paper mill

Pulp and paper wastewater sludges are waste streams produced in major quantities across the world. The recycling of these organic sludges, for example to soil amendments, is desired in the circular economy but carries the risk of potential pollutants to be also introduced into the environment. Pulp and paper wastewater sludges have been scarcely studied matrices in the microplastic research due to their complex composition. In this study, we optimized an extraction process for microplastics from pulp and paper wastewater sludges, and quantified and characterized microplastics down to 20 μm in primary sludge and biosludge generated at the wastewater treatment plant of a multi-product pulp and paper mill in Finland. The occurrence of microplastics was high in primary sludge, 900–1600 microplastics g-1 dry weight, while the maximum number of detected microplastics in biosludge samples remained at 210 g-1 dry weight. Biosludge samples suffered from larger amounts of remaining solids after the extraction process, thus compromising the detection of smaller microplastics (<100 μm) and increasing the uncertainty related to the interpretation of the results. The most prevalent microplastic shape in all samples was fragment, and the most recurring polymer types were polyethylene and polypropylene, while a polystyrene-based copolymer represented approximately 10% of identified microplastics in primary sludge. The present study advances the development of microplastic analysis of the challenging pulp and paper wastewater sludges and brings novel information to the progressing discussion of their circulation potential.

High-resolution NMR spectroscopic approaches to quantify PET microplastics pollution in environmental freshwater samples

Reliable identification and precise quantification of microplastics pollution of the environment are essential prerequisites to comprehend the impact of microplastics on Earth’s ecosystems. In this study, we propose a workflow to examine polyethylene terephthalate (PET) contamination of environmental surface waters by applying high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic approaches. The detection of PET by high-resolution NMR spectroscopy enables the unambiguous identification and - at the same time - precise quantification at atomic resolution independent from the size of the particles obtained from surface waters. Monitoring the properties of translational diffusion and relaxation of PET chains present in the samples obtained from Lake Constance water by filtration (‘Manta trawls’), extraction and dissolving, hints towards a rather heterogeneous distribution in length of the PET chains. The workflow developed here achieved a limit of detection of 192.2 ng PET and a recovery rate of 88 ± 25% for PET microplastics that was spiked to the Manta trawls. The NMR driven analysis led to a concentration determination of 335 ± 200 ng PET per cubic meter of Lake Constance water. The workflow developed here offers not only a simple and reliable quantitative determination of the mass of PET in environmental samples independent of particle size but is additionally providing insights into the inherent polymeric features of PET, which are not accessible through other established methods of microplastics detection. Therefore, a broad application of the NMR spectroscopic approach presented here can be assumed.

Detection of microplastics in fish using computed tomography and deep learning

Marine organisms have been observed ingesting microplastic particles, with field analyses indicating fibers and fragments as prevalent forms. Current microplastic detection methods are mainly time-consuming, susceptible to cross-contamination, and expensive. Furthermore, these techniques, being disruptive, do not allow for the exact localization of the microplastic in the sample. This study proposes a new approach using Computed Tomography (CT scan) and Artificial Intelligence for the automatic and non-destructive detection of microplastics in fishes and other species based on the combination of several factors, such as density and shape. The advantages of this methodology include accurate identification of plastic localization, a low risk of cross-contamination, rapid processing, automatic tomographic measurement, efficient data processing, cost-effectiveness, and a high cost-benefit ratio. The herein results highlight how artificial intelligence applied to conventional techniques can significantly improve precision and efficiency in microplastic research. Indeed, the semantic segmentation model clearly recognized the presence of 100 % of the plastic particles, both in their location and in their volume, accelerating the identification process and surpassing the limitations of traditional spectral analysis methodologies.

Adaptable Plasmonic Membrane Sensors for Fast and Reliable Detection of Trace Low-Micrometer Microplastics in Lake Water.

In freshwater environments, low-micrometer microplastics (LMMPs) have captured significant attention due to their prevalence and toxicity. Yet, rapid detection of LMMPs (1-10 μm) at the single-particle level within complex freshwater matrices remains a hurdle. We developed an adaptable plasmonic membrane sensor for fast detection of individual LMMPs in eutrophic lake waters. The plasmonic membrane sensor functions both as a membrane filter and as a sensor for LMMP collection and analysis. Among the four types of membrane sensors, polycarbonate track-etch (PCTE) membrane sensors exhibit superior imaging quality for LMMPs due to their flat and homogeneous surfaces. Besides the significantly improved imaging contrast and reduced background interferences, the Raman intensity of LMMPs is enhanced by 48% ± 25% on PCTE membrane sensors compared to unmodified membranes. The increased Raman intensities of a chemical probe with an increasing gold layer thickness and a decreasing membrane pore size suggest a surface-enhanced Raman scattering effect from the membrane sensors. The membrane sensors achieve a detection limit of 1 μg/L and an ultrafast scanning time of 0.01 s for individual LMMPs across natural eutrophic lake water. The developed membrane sensors offer an adaptable tool for the swift and reliable detection of individual LMMPs in complex environmental matrices.

In Situ Deprotection-Free Synthesis of Silver/Graphdiyne with a High Raman Sensing Effect for Detection of Polychlorophenols and Microplastics.

Since the first synthesis of graphdiyne (GDY), it has been widely receiving a lot of attention and has great application prospects in many fields, such as energy storage, catalysis, and sensing. However, the complex deprotection treatment and long reaction time limit its mass production and applications. Here, we present a strategy for the silver-catalyzed deprotection-free rapid synthesis of GDY. Crystalline GDY was synthesized in 8 h at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, and after the reaction, Ag nanoparticles with an ultrathin diameter of 2-3 nm were formed in situ inside and on the surface of GDY. This Ag/GDY composite exhibits a high specific surface area of 672.3 m2 g-1 and strong surface plasmon resonance behavior, showing a strong surface-enhanced Raman scattering effect. The enhancement factor and the lowest detection limit for rhodamine 6G are 3.54 × 108 and 1 × 10-14 M, respectively. The Ag/GDY achieves the simultaneous enrichment and detection of polychlorophenols and ultrafine nanoplastics.

Raman spectroscopic quantification of polyethylene particles in water using polydimethylsiloxane-coated nickel foam as a particle-capturing platform

Nickel foam (NF) was evaluated as a medium for the capture of polyethylene (PE) particles in water. NF is a hydrophobic and porous material with a large surface area, making it a promising candidate for attracting PE particles. However, the particle-capturing efficiency using bare NF was only 69.5%. To increase capturing efficiency, a circular polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-coated NF (PDMS@NF, diameter: 6 mm) was employed to enhance the hydrophobicity. The capturing efficiency using the PDMS@NF was substantially increased to 97.6 % owing to the increase in hydrophobicity. To quantify the captured PE particles on/in the PDMS@NF using Raman spectroscopy, a wide area illumination (WAI) scheme providing 6 mm-diameter laser illumination was adopted to fully cover the PDMS@NF for representative spectroscopic sampling and accurate quantification. The intensity ratios of PE to PDMS peaks in the collected spectra clearly increased with the quantity of dispersed PE particles (0.1 ∼ 4.0 mg range, R2: 0.992) in the water samples, and the limit of detection was 0.08 mg. Moreover, the capturing efficiencies for polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) particles (1 mg of each) using the PDMS@NF were also superior, ranging from 96.4 to 98.2 %. Therefore, the proposed scheme incorporating the PDMS@NF as a particle-capturing and Raman measurement platform has potential as a method for on-line detection of microplastics in water.

A Review of Analytical Methods for Microplastics in Soils

Microplastics (MPs), as an emerging environmental pollutant, pose a potential threat to ecosystems and human health, and the study of their analytical methods has become particularly important. In this paper, the current research progress of analytical methods for MPs in soil is reviewed. The sources, ecological impacts and possible health risks of MPs are introduced, and the urgency of accurate detection and quantitative analysis of MPs is emphasized. Subsequently, MPs’ analytical methods based on different principles, including visual analysis, chemical analysis, spectroscopic techniques, microscopic observation, and mass spectrometry, are systematically outlined in response to the wide range of sample sources and wide particle size distribution of MPs. For each method, the advantages, limitations and scope of application are highlighted and evaluated, and the directions and development trends for future improvement are proposed. The review of this paper is expected to promote the continuous improvement and innovation of MPs analytical methods and provide more effective technical support and scientific basis for solving the MPs’ pollution problems.

Microplastics alter toxicity of the insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis to chironomid larvae in different ways depending on particle size

Microplastics (<5 mm) are emerging freshwater contaminants that can have a wide range of effects on aquatic biota. One concern is that combined effects of microplastics (MPs) with other stressors, such as co-occurring contaminants in urban or agricultural runoff may be significant even when the direct effects of MPs may be modest. Despite the frequent detection of both insecticides and MPs in freshwater ecosystems, there is a lack of co-exposure studies of insecticides (especially Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti)) and MPs. Here we tested the effects of ingested MPs and Bti individually and in co-exposure using the aquatic midge Chironomus riparius as a model organism. First instar larvae were fed two sizes of white polyethylene particles (34–50 and 125 μm diameter) at 106 mg/L in an artificial diet and simultaneously exposed to increasing concentrations of Bti (7, 13, 27, 53, and 89 ng/L Active Ingredient) in the water column for 21 days. For comparison, a trial was also conducted with naturally occurring kaolin clay particles (1–10 μm diameter) at 106 mg/L in the artificial diet. Bti alone reduced 7-day larval survival at higher concentrations (53, and 89 ng/L). Dietary PE-MPs and kaolin did not affect the survival of C. riparius larvae. However, when exposed in combination, PE-MPs modified the toxicity of Bti. This modification was size-dependent, with smaller particles (34–50 μm) increasing survival of Bti-exposed larvae and larger particles (125 μm) reducing survival. Our results show the potential for microplastics to alter the efficacy of an insecticide widely used to control nuisance midges and mosquitoes and add to a growing body of literature describing how the toxicological effects of microplastics are influenced by the size and shape of particles.

Enhanced detection and classification of microplastics in marine environments using deep learning

Microplastics (MPs) pose a growing environmental threat due to their accumulation and ecological impact. This study aimed to overcome the limitations of traditional methods, which are labor-intensive and prone to errors, in order to detect and classify MPs more effectively against marine pollution. We assessed object detection and classification algorithms: YOLOv8x, YOLOv8x (with augmentation), YOLOv8m, YOLOv8m (with augmentation), YOLO-NAS-L, and YOLO-NAS-L (with augmentation), focusing on four MP morphologies: fiber, film, fragment, and pellet. The dataset was divided into 80 % for training (320 images), 20 % for validation (80 images), and a fixed testing set of 200 images. The images were augmented using rotation (+25° and −25°), resizing (640 × 640 pixels), zooming, auto-orient strips, flipping, and noise application. This expanded the training set by 300 %, resulting in a total of 1400 images. The YOLOv8 models, particularly when augmented, outperformed the YOLO-NAS-L models in both mAP@0.5 and precision across all categories. Notably, YOLOv8x achieved an exceptional 99.0 % in both precision and mAP@0.5, with an impressive inference time of only 1.2 ms per image. The implementation of augmentation significantly enhanced detection accuracy across various models. With augmentation, YOLOv8x, YOLOv8m, and YOLO-NAS-L consistently achieved precision levels exceeding 99 %. For real-time applications, YOLOv8x was selected for the web application designed to detect and classify MPs, providing a more accurate and efficient solution compared to conventional methods. This model serves as a valuable resource for researchers in MP analysis, improving accuracy and reliability in environmental monitoring.

Expanding sample volume for microscopical detection of nanoplastics

The extent of nanoplastic pollution has raised severe environmental and health concerns. While the means for microplastic detection are abundant, improved tools for nanoplastic detection are called-for. State-of-the-art microscopic techniques can detect nanoplastics down to tens of nanometers, however, only from small sample sizes (typically ∼10μl). In this work, we describe a method that enables sampling of 1 liter of seawater by the means of correlative Raman- and SEM-techniques. This is achieved by adapting common microplastic sample purification protocols to suit the nanoplastic study. In addition, we decorate a membrane filter with SERS-property to amplify the Raman signals. Together, the purification method combined with the use of the SERS-activated-membrane-filter enables identification and imaging of individual nanoplastic particles from significantly larger sample sizes than before. In the nanoscale the average recovery rate is 5 %. These results aim to provide useful tools for researchers in the fight against plastic pollution.

Sustainable control of microplastics in wastewater using the electrochemically enhanced living membrane bioreactor

Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharges are major contributors to the release of microplastics (MPs) into the environment. This research work aimed to assess the performance of the novel living membrane bioreactor (LMBR), which utilizes a biological layer as a membrane filter for the removal of polyethylene (PE) MPs from wastewater. The impact of an intermittently applied low current density (0.5 mA/cm2) on the reduction of MPs in the electrochemically enhanced LMBR (e-LMBR) has also been examined. The reactors were also compared to a conventional membrane bioreactor (MBR) and an electro-MBR (e-MBR). 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) was implemented for the MPs detection and quantification in terms of mass per volume of sample.The LMBR and MBR achieved comparable mean PE MPs reduction at 95% and 96%, respectively. The MPs mass reduction in the e-LMBR slightly decreased by 2% compared to that achieved in the LMBR. This potentially indicated the partial breakdown of the MPs due to electrochemical processes. Decreasing and inconsistent NH4-N and PO4-P removal efficiencies were observed over time due to the addition of PE MPs in the MBR and LMBR. In contrast, the integration of electric field in the e-MBR and e-LMBR resulted in consistently high values of conventional contaminant removals of COD (99.72–99.77 %), NH4-N (97.96–98.67%), and PO4-P (98.44–100.00%), despite the MPs accumulation.Integrating electrochemical processes in the e-LMBR led to the development of a stable living membrane (LM) layer, as manifested in the consistently low effluent turbidity 0.49 ± 0.33 NTU. Despite the increasing MPs concentration in the mixed liquor, applying electrochemical processes reduced the fouling rates in the e-LMBR. The e-LMBR achieved comparable efficiencies in contaminant reductions as those observed in the e-MBR, while using a low-cost membrane material.

Human exposure to microplastics: A review on exposure routes and public health impacts

The presence of microplastics (MPs) in human body parts has raised significant concerns due to their status as a major environmental pollutant. Despite existing methods for detecting and identifying MPs in human tissues, there is a lack of standardized techniques, compromising the comparability of data across studies. This review critically analyzes the current knowledge on MPs in human body parts, sources and potential exposure pathways. This study underscores the urgent need for standardized and validated techniques for accurate MP analysis and characterization in human tissues, addressing the methodological challenges in MP detection. The findings of this review indicate that humans are exposed to MPs potentially through several routes such as ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact. However, the exact routes for MPs entering the body remain unclear. It also examines the wide range of health impacts associated with MPs, such as oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, endocrine disruption, and potential genotoxicity. Nevertheless, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are still not well understood, especially when considering the diverse concentrations, shapes, and sizes of MPs. Therefore, further research is essential, particularly to enhance epidemiological studies that can robustly establish the link between MP exposure and health impacts in large populations. Advancing this knowledge will be crucial for developing effective strategies to safeguard both environmental and public health from the detrimental effects of MPs.

Quantification of auto-photobleaching effects during Raman measurements for microplastic detection

Fluorescence interference is a common issue when analyzing microplastics with Raman spectroscopy due to the presence of coloring substances such as organic dyes. Various methods have been attempted to mitigate this fluorescent background, with photobleaching being widely used. However, there has been a lack of quantitative studies on the extent of photobleaching at the single-particle level. In this study, we quantitatively analyzed the photobleaching effect by varying microplastic size, dye concentration, and laser intensity, revealing the magnitude of this effect and its dependence on these parameters. Specifically, we analyzed how quickly fluorescence decreases at the single-particle level, considering the photobleaching efficiency of typical organic dyes. Our results show that, under realistic Raman measurement conditions, careful adjustment of these variables can lead to rapid photobleaching of microplastics below a certain size, thereby sufficiently eliminating fluorescence background issues. These insights are crucial for optimizing experimental protocols and streamlining the detection of small colored microplastics in real environmental samples using Raman spectroscopy.

Microplastics in food: Occurrence, toxicity, green analytical detection methods and future challenges

The pervasive presence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment has raised significant concerns about their infiltration into the human food chain. In current review, the occurrence and distribution of MPs in various food matrices such as seafood, drinking water, fruits, vegetables, and beverages are discussed along with their potential routes of MPs entry into the human food chain. The toxicity of MPs on human health and different organs are discussed in brief. Current technological advancement and green analytical methods for the detection of MPs in food samples are compared, discussing their advantages and limitations. Green analytical methods, including stereomicroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and enzymatic digestion, are evaluated for their efficacy and environmental impact. The Analytical Eco-Scale is used to assess the greenness of these methods. Challenges associated with MPs detection in food, such as complex food matrices, pretreatment methods, and variability in MPs concentrations, are addressed.

Microplastics and nanoplastics in soil: Sources, impacts, and solutions for soil health and environmental sustainability.

The present review discusses the growing concern of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in soil, together with their sources, concentration, distribution, and impact on soil microorganisms, human health, and ecosystems. MPs and NPs can enter the soil through various pathways, such as agricultural activities, sewage sludge application, and atmospheric deposition. Once in the soil, they can accumulate in the upper layers and affect soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability. The presence of MPs and NPs in soil can also have ecological consequences, acting as carriers for pollutants and contaminants, such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants. Additionally, the leaching of chemicals and additives from MPs and NPs can pose public health risks through the food web and groundwater contamination. The detection and analyses of MPs and NPs in soil can be challenging, and methods involve spectroscopic and microscopy techniques, such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. To mitigate the presence and effects of MPs and NPs in soil, it is essential to reduce plastic waste production, improve waste management practices, and adopt sustainable agricultural practices. Effective mitigation measures include implementing stricter regulations on plastic use, promoting biodegradable alternatives, and enhancing recycling infrastructure. Additionally, soil amendments, such as biochar and compost, can help immobilize MPs and NPs, reducing their mobility and bioavailability. This review article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of these emerging environmental issues and identify potential solutions to alleviate their impact on soil health, ecosystem functioning, and community health.

Microplastics in urban water cycles: Looking for a more scientific approach for sampling and characterization in wastewater and drinking water treatment plants

Specific campaigns to detect microplastics (MPs) in the urban water cycle were carried out in three drinking water plants and two wastewater treatment plants. A self-designed sampler for MPs detection in water matrices was in this study preliminary validated and then tested in long term campaigns sampling up to 1000 L. Raw drinking water and wastewater show microplastics (MPs) concentrations of 2–11 and of 480–801 MPs/m3, respectively, and MPs removals of 47–78 % and of 84–98 %, correspondingly. Specific roles of chemical and physical conventional processes in microplastics removals were investigated. Solid-liquid separation, flotation and filtration are the main processes for achieving high microplastics removal. Regarding concentrated matrices, MPs concentrations in sludge samples varied in the range of 5000–500,000 MPs/m3. Finally, shapes, size classes and polymers' typologies were investigated in the extracted MPs. The detected sizes are mainly 0.5–0.1 mm in drinking waters while 5–1 mm in wastewaters. Wastewaters were predominated by synthetic fibers (polyester type), while drinking waters were mainly characterized by fragments and the fibers were mostly of natural origin. Finally, the results of this study supported best practices and guidelines for a representative assessment of MPs in water (sampling methods, extraction procedures, characterization and quantification).

Detection of microplastics in human tissues and organs: A scoping review.

Research on microplastics has largely focused on the environment and marine organisms until recently. A growing body of evidence has detected microplastics in human organs and tissues, with their exact entry routes being unclear and their potential health effects remain unknown. This scoping review aimed to characterise microplastics in human tissues and organs, examine their entry routes and addressing gaps in research analytical techniques. Eligibility criteria included English language full text articles, in-vivo human studies only, and searching the databases using pre-defined terms. We based our analysis and reporting on the PRISMA guideline and examined the quality of evidence using the risk of bias assessment tool. Of 3616 articles screened, 223 evaluated and 26 were eventually included in this review. Nine were high risk for bias, three were unclear risk and the rest low risk for bias. Microplastics were detected in 8/12 human organ systems including cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, integumentary, lymphatic, respiratory, reproductive and urinary. Microplastics were also observed in other human biological samples such as breastmilk, meconium, semen, stool, sputum and urine. Microplastics can be characterised based on shape, colours, and polymer type. Potential entry routes into human included atmospheric inhalation and ingestion through food and water. The extraction techniques for analysis of microplastics in human tissues vary significantly, each offering distinct advantages and limitations. Microplastics are commonly detected in human tissues and organs, with distinct characteristics and entry routes, and variable analytical techniques exist.

Plasmonic array at liquid-liquid interface for trace microplastics detection

Microplastics (MPs) pollution has become a focal point of global concern, as the widespread distribution of MPs in the environment poses a potential threat to ecosystems and human health. Despite surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) being one of the most promising detection techniques, the “coffee ring effect” of MPs and their unique size scale make effective contact with SERS substrates challenging. Here, we propose a novel strategy for MPs detection by constructing a plasmonic metasurface at the liquid-liquid interface (LLI). The fluidic properties of LLI provide more flexibility for the uniform dispersion of MPs and the assembly of plasmonic arrays. MPs are captured and assembled on an atomic-level metasurface in a core-shell structure (AuNPs@MPs), providing abundant “hot spots” and additional volume-enhanced Raman effects. This results in enhanced electromagnetic field around MPs and increased enhancement factors, demonstrating high SERS sensitivity and uniformity. This sensing platform provides a new approach for trace detection of MPs and has been validated in practical matrix.

Engineering the Hot-Spots in Au-Ag Alloy Nanoparticles through Meniscus-Confined 3D Printing for Microplastic Detection.

The escalating concern surrounding microplastic (MP) pollution necessitates urgent attention and the development of rapid techniques for quantifying extremely low concentrations. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has emerged as a promising method due to its simplicity, high sensitivity, and rapid quantification capabilities. Herein, the efficacy of gold-silver alloy nanoparticles (3DPAu-Ag) substrates for detecting poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) MPs is investigated. The 3DPAu-Ag SERS substrates are fabricated using the meniscus-confined electrochemical 3D printing (MC-E3DP) process, employing a nozzle of 0.8 mm size with 2.5 V potential at a printing speed of 0.4 mm s-1. The proposed SERS substrates exhibit exceptional sensitivity and are capable of detecting PMMA concentrations as low as 0.2 μg mL-1 and PS concentrations of 1.2 μg mL-1 within the ranges of 1-103 μg mL-1 and 10-104 μg mL-1, respectively. Remarkable enhancement factors (EFs) of up to 3.2 × 104 for PMMA and 9.3 × 103 for PS are achieved, underscoring the substrates' effectiveness. Furthermore, the investigation demonstrates outstanding uniformity and reproducibility of the 3DPAu-Ag substrates, with relative standard deviation (RSD) values of only 4.1 and 6.4%, respectively, across 31 and 5 measurements. Additionally, a minimal 17% decrease in the initial SERS signal value after 5 weeks highlights the substrates' high stability. This not only highlights the superior quality of the substrates but also positions them ahead of previously reported works in the literature. Moreover, this study also comes up with a plausible mechanism for MPs SERS detection facilitated by the 3DPAu-Ag substrates, offering insights into the underlying processes. Overall, 3DPAu-Ag substrates show promise for sensitive, stable MP detection, which is crucial for environmental monitoring.