Detection Of High Energy Cosmic Rays Research Articles

Double Photodiode Readout System for the Calorimeter of the HERD Experiment: Challenges and New Horizons in Technology for the Direct Detection of High-Energy Cosmic Rays

The HERD experiment is a future experiment for the direct detection of high-energy cosmic rays and is to be installed on the Chinese space station in 2027. The main objectives of HERD are the first direct measurement of the knee of the cosmic ray spectrum, the extension of electron+positron flux measurement up to tens of TeV, gamma ray astronomy, and the search for indirect signals of dark matter. The main component of the HERD detector is an innovative calorimeter composed of about 7500 LYSO scintillating crystals assembled in a spherical shape. Two independent readout systems of the LYSO scintillation light will be installed on each crystal: the wavelength-shifting fibers system developed by IHEP and the double photodiode readout system developed by INFN and CIEMAT. In order to measure protons in the cosmic ray knee region, we must be able to measure energy release of about 250 TeV in a single crystal. In addition, in order to calibrate the system, we need to measure typical releases of minimum ionizing particles that are about 30 MeV. Thus, the readout systems should have a dynamic range of about 107. In this article, we analyze the development and the performance of the double photodiode readout system. In particular, we show the performance of a prototype readout by the double photodiode system for electromagnetic showers as measured during a beam test carried out at the CERN SPS in October 2021 with high-energy electron beams.

Preface

AtmoHEAD (ATmospheric Monitoring for High Energy Astroparticle Detectors) is a periodic 3-days international workshop on the influence of the atmosphere on high-energy cosmic-ray and gamma-ray astroparticle detectors. The 2022 edition is focused on atmospheric monitoring and on the detection and study of events related to atmospheric electricity. The event follows the tradition of previous AtmoHEAD conferences - AtmoHEAD 2013 in Saclay, 2014 in Padova, 2016 in Olomouc and 2018 in Anacapri.The atmosphere is an integral component of many high-energy astroparticle detectors. These include Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs) and ground or space based cosmic-ray extensive air shower detectors. All these observatories use the atmosphere as a giant calorimeter where cosmic rays and gamma rays deposit their energy and initiate extensive air showers; it is also the medium through which the resulting Cherenkov and Fluorescence light propagates, and through which it is attenuated and scattered before reaching the detectors. Clearly, a precise and quantitative monitoring of the atmospheric aerosol and molecular conditions are mandatory for an accurate reconstruction of the detected events. Moreover, in the last years there is a growing interest in the detection of electrical phenomena (ELVES, TGFs, ...) developed in atmosphere with high-energy astroparticle detectors, which represent a unique opportunity to study the characteristics of these events with large statistics and precision.New and common monitoring and calibration instruments including lidars, distant laser facilities, cloud monitors, all sky cameras, sun/moon photometers, satellite observations, lightning sensors, as well as simulations, are among the most important tools of these observatories.These online workshop proceedings are grouped in two main sections, Atmospheric Characterization and Atmospheric Electricity and focus on the state-of-the-art and future perspectives of techniques and instruments.Some more detail on the topics treated in the workshop :• the influence of the atmosphere on the measurements of present and future UHECR and gamma-ray experiments• terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, transient luminous events and general topics in atmospheric electricity• analysis techniques and instruments• public global data sets, models and simulationsWe take advantage of this preface to thank all the participants for the very fruitful discussions that came up during the workshop in a friendly and collaborative atmosphere, among participants of different but complementary fields. This was the main goal of AtmoHEAD 2022.AtmoHEAD 2022 was organized by the Department of Physics “E. Pancini ” of the University of Napoli Federico II and by the Napoli Division of the National Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN).

Optimal gamma-ray selections for monochromatic line searches with DAMPE

The DArk Matter Particle Explorer (DAMPE) is a space high-energy cosmic-ray detector covering a wide energy band with a high energy resolution. One of the key scientific goals of DAMPE is to carry out indirect detection of dark matter by searching for high-energy gamma-ray line structure. To promote the sensitivity of gamma-ray line search with DAMPE, it is crucial to improve the acceptance and energy resolution of gamma-ray photons. In this paper, we quantitatively proved that the photon sample with the largest ratio of acceptance to energy resolution is optimal for line search. We therefore developed a line-search sample specifically optimized for the line-search. Meanwhile, in order to increase the statistics, we also selected the so-called BGO-only photons that convert into e+e− pairs only in the BGO calorimeter. The standard, the line-search, and the BGO-only photon samples are then tested for line-search individually and collectively. The results show that a significantly improved limit could be obtained from an appropriate combination of the date sets, and the increase is about 20% for the highest case compared with using the standard sample only.

Correction method for the readout saturation of the DAMPE calorimeter

The DArk Matter Particle Explorer (DAMPE) is a space-borne high energy cosmic-ray and γ-ray detector which operates smoothly since the launch on December 17, 2015. The bismuth germanium oxide (BGO) calorimeter is one of the key sub-detectors of DAMPE used for energy measurement and electron–proton identification. For events with total energy deposit higher than decades of TeV, the readouts of PMTs coupled on the BGO crystals would become saturated, which results in an underestimation of the energy measurement. Based on detailed simulations, we develop a correction method for the saturation effect according to the shower development topologies and energies measured by neighbouring BGO crystals. The verification with simulated and on-orbit events shows that this method can well reconstruct the energy deposit in the saturated BGO crystal.

The use of Cherenkov light in the detection of high-energy cosmic rays and neutrinos: The Pierre Auger and IceCube Observatories

For centuries, visible light has been used to unveil the Universe. Technological advances in recent decades have extended our vision by allowing the detection of photons across a wide spectrum, from radio waves to gamma-rays. Above O(∼1TeV), however, electromagnetic radiation may not penetrate the gases and dust between their sources and us. Two windows into the highest-energy phenomenon in the Universe are cosmic rays and neutrinos. So far, fluxes of charged particles above EeV and neutrinos above TeV have been measured. Here, we review the role of Cherenkov light in the detection of these two cosmic messengers by focusing on the Pierre Auger Observatory and the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, and illustrate the continued importance of light in revealing the Universe.

Riccardo Giacconi (1931–2018)

Riccardo Giacconi, the “Father of X-ray Astronomy,” Nobel laureate, and one of the most influential figures in astrophysics over the past 60 years, died on December 9, 2018, at the age of 87. With a career spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, Riccardo opened up new windows for observing the universe and revolutionized “big astronomy.” Many in the astronomy community continue to base their research on data from observatories that he conceived, built, and/or directed. Riccardo Giacconi at the rostrum of the Chandra Symposium held in Huntsville, Alabama on September 16, 2003. Image courtesy of NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center. Riccardo’s outstanding scientific capabilities were well matched by his extraordinary leadership and management skills. He had a deep belief in a scientific approach to problem solving and to establishing systematic processes. He insisted that instruments and observatories be built to answer driving scientific questions. Another key to his success was the legendary dedication and drive of the research teams that he assembled, which could be traced directly to Riccardo’s deep commitment to establishing an environment of intellectual honesty and trust. Born in Genoa, Italy, on October 6, 1931, Riccardo received his doctorate in 1954 from the University of Milan. At that time, the only practical way to study high-energy nuclear reactions was through the detection and analysis of the interaction of high-energy cosmic rays, primarily protons, with atomic nuclei in the atmosphere. For his thesis research, he spent about two years at the Testa Grigio Observatory (elevation: 3,500 meters) in the Italian Alps and obtained 80 high-energy cosmic ray detection events. Although he learned much about the conception, design, and building of detectors, Riccardo was frustrated by the lack of “action.” A Fulbright fellowship brought Riccardo to the United States, where he worked at Indiana and Princeton before joining American Science and Engineering … [↵][1]1To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: htananbaum{at}cfa.harvard.edu. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Status and perspectives of the radio detection of highenergy cosmic rays

Status and perspectives of the radio detection of high-energy cosmic rays are discussed with emphasis on recent developments at the LOFAR radio telescope and the Pierre Auger Observatory.

Ground-Based Observations of Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flashes Associated with Downward-Directed Lightning Leaders

Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs) are bursts of gamma-rays initiated in the Earth’s atmosphere. TGFs were serendipitously first observed over twenty years ago by the BATSE gamma ray satellite experiment. Since then, several satellite experiments have shown that TGFs are produced in the upward negative breakdown stage at the start of intracloud lightning discharges. In this proceeding, we present ground-based observation of TGFs produced by downward negative breakdown occurring at the beginning of negative cloud-to-ground flashes.The Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes discussed in this work were detected between 2014-2017 at ground level by the Telescope Array surface detector (TASD) together with Lightning Mapping Array (LMA) and the slow electric field antenna (SA). The TASD detector is a 700 km2ultra high energy cosmic ray detector in the southwestern desert of Utah. It is comprised of 507 (3 m2) plastic scintillator detectors on a 1.2 km square grid. The LMA detector, a three-dimensional total lightning location system, is comprised of nine stations located within and around the array. The slow electric field antenna records the electric field change in lightning discharges.The observed Gamma ray showers were detected in the first 1-2 ms of downward negative breakdown prior to cloud-to-ground lightning strikes. The shower sources were observed by the LMA detector at altitudes of a few kilometers above ground level. The detected energetic burst showers have a footprint on the ground typically ~ 3-5 km in diameter. The bursts comprise of several (2-5) individual pulses, each of which have a span of a few to tens of microseconds and an overall duration of several hundred microseconds. Using a forward-beamed cone of half-angle of 16 degrees, GEANT simulation studies indicate that the showers are consistent with gamma rays of 1012- 1014primary photons. We hypothesize that the observed terrestrial gamma-ray flashes are similar to those detected by satellites, but that the ground-based observations are closer to the source and therefore are able to observe weaker sources and report on the structure of the temporal distribution at the source. This result and future studies will enable us to better identify and constrain the mechanisms of downward TGF production.

The future of the high energy cosmic ray detection: HERD

The High Energy cosmic-Radiation Detection (HERD) facility will be one of the space astronomy payloads on board the future Chinese space station. The ambitious aim of HERD is the direct detection of cosmic rays towards the “knee” region (~ 1 PeV), with a detector able to measure electrons, photons and nuclei with an excellent energy resolution (1% for electrons and photons at 200 GeV and 20% for nuclei at 100 GeV - PeV), an acceptance 10 times the one of present generation missions (~ 1 m2 sr), and long life-time (> 10 years). The primary objectives of HERD are the indirect search for dark matter particles and the precise measurement of energy distribution and composition of cosmic rays from 30 GeV up to a few PeV, determining the origin of the “knee” structure of the spectrum. Furthermore, HERD will monitor the high energy gamma-ray sky from 500 MeV, observing gamma-ray bursts, active galactic nuclei, galactic microquasars, etc. HERD will be composed of a homogeneous calorimeter, surrounded by a particle tracker and a plastic scintillator detector. Two possible trackers are under study: a 5-side tracker made of silicon strip detectors and a 4-side scintillating fiber tracker with a silicon strip top tracker. The total volume of HERD will be (2.3 × 2.3 × 2.6) m3 with a weight of about 4 t. The HERD design, perspectives, expected performances in terms of energy sensitivity and acceptance will be presented in this contribution.

The Design and Realization of the Payload Integrated Test System for DAMPEtwo

The Dark Matter Particle Explorer (DAMPE) is a space-borne high-energy cosmic ray detector. The payload consists of five subsystems, including the Plastic Scintillator Detector (PSD), the Silicon-Tungsten tracKer converter detector (STK), the BGO (Bismuth Germanate) calorimeter, the NeUtron Detector (NUD), and the Data AcQuisition system (DAQ). The five subsystems work collaboratively to collect the information of cosmic rays. In order to systematically verify the performance of the payload before launching, we have developed a set of integrated test system for the ground tests of the payload based on the LabWindows/CVI (C programming language Virtual Instrument) platform. This system has realized the integrity and automation of the comprehensive ground tests of the payload, improved the security, reliability, and efficiency of the ground tests, and provided a guarantee for the successful delivery of the payload.

MARTA: a high-energy cosmic-ray detector concept for high-accuracy muon measurement

A new concept for the direct measurement of muons in air showers is presented. The concept is based on resistive plate chambers (RPCs), which can directly measure muons with very good space and time resolution. The muon detector is shielded by placing it under another detector able to absorb and measure the electromagnetic component of the showers such as a water-Cherenkov detector, commonly used in air shower arrays. The combination of the two detectors in a single, compact detector unit provides a unique measurement that opens rich possibilities in the study of air showers.

CaloCube: An isotropic spaceborne calorimeter for high-energy cosmic rays. Optimization of the detector performance for protons and nuclei

The direct detection of high-energy cosmic rays up to the PeV region is one of the major challenges for the next generation of space-borne cosmic-ray detectors. The physics performance will be primarily determined by their geometrical acceptance and energy resolution. CaloCube is a homogeneous calorimeter whose geometry allows an almost isotropic response, so as to detect particles arriving from every direction in space, thus maximizing the acceptance. A comparative study of different scintillating materials and mechanical structures has been performed by means of Monte Carlo simulation. The scintillation-Cherenkov dual read-out technique has been also considered and its benefit evaluated.

CaloCube: A new-concept calorimeter for the detection of high-energy cosmic rays in space

The direct observation of high-energy cosmic rays, up to the PeV region, will increasingly rely on highly performing calorimeters, and the physics performance will be primarily determined by their geometrical acceptance and energy resolution. Thus, it is extremely important to optimize their geometrical design, granularity, and absorption depth, with respect to the total mass of the apparatus, which is among the most important constraints for a space mission. Calocube is a homogeneous calorimeter whose basic geometry is cubic and isotropic, so as to detect particles arriving from every direction in space, thus maximizing the acceptance; granularity is obtained by filling the cubic volume with small cubic scintillating crystals. This design forms the basis of a three-year R &D activity which has been approved and financed by INFN. A comparative study of different scintillating materials has been performed. Optimal values for the size of the crystals and spacing among them have been studied. Different geometries, besides the cubic one, and the possibility to implement dual-readout techniques have been investigated. A prototype, instrumented with CsI(Tl) cubic crystals, has been constructed and tested with particle beams. An overview of the obtained results will be presented and the perspectives for future space experiments will be discussed.

Radar detection of high-energy cosmic rays in non-Gaussian background using a time-frequency technique

Cosmic rays are the highest-energy observable particles in the universe. Their study opens a new frontier for scientists to better understand the nature of the universe. This paper reports our study of a bistatic radar approach that is being developed for remote sensing of cosmic-ray induced air showers. In this context, we propose a robust detection technique based on time-frequency domain for the received radar echoes. These echoes are modeled as linear-downward chirp signals, characterized by very short sweep periods, low energies, and corrupted by non-stationary and non-Gaussian background noise. In addition, the related parameters of the received echoes are variable within some expected ranges, determined by the physical parameters of the air showers. In this paper, we explore the performance of the proposed detection method through an extensive theoretical analysis. We derive formulae for probability of the correct detection, as well as false-alarm rate. Numerical simulations and experimental results that corroborate our analysis are also presented.

Performance of the BGO Detector Element of the DAMPE Calorimeter

A satellite-borne, high energy cosmic ray detector, named the DArk Matter Particle Explorer (DAMPE), was developed in China. The major scientific objectives of the DAMPE mission are observing primary cosmic rays and gamma rays in an energy range from 5 GeV to 10 TeV, to find evidence of the existence of dark matter particle. An electromagnetic calorimeter(ECAL), which contains 308 Bismuth Germanate(BGO) crystal bars, has been built for the DAMPE mission. The performance of 60-cm long BGO crystal bars has been studied with cosmic rays. Electron and ion beam test results of the BGO ECAL are also presented in this paper.

Radio detection of high-energy cosmic rays with the Auger Engineering Radio Array

The Auger Engineering Radio Array (AERA) is an enhancement of the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina. Covering about 17km2, AERA is the world-largest antenna array for cosmic-ray observation. It consists of more than 150 antenna stations detecting the radio signal emitted by air showers, i.e., cascades of secondary particles caused by primary cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere. At the beginning, technical goals had been in focus: first of all, the successful demonstration that a large-scale antenna array consisting of autonomous stations is feasible. Moreover, techniques for calibration of the antennas and time calibration of the array have been developed, as well as special software for the data analysis. Meanwhile physics goals come into focus. At the Pierre Auger Observatory air showers are simultaneously detected by several detector systems, in particular water-Cherenkov detectors at the surface, underground muon detectors, and fluorescence telescopes, which enables cross-calibration of different detection techniques. For the direction and energy of air showers, the precision achieved by AERA is already competitive; for the type of primary particle, several methods are tested and optimized. By combining AERA with the particle detectors we aim for a better understanding of cosmic rays in the energy range from approximately 0.3 to 10EeV, i.e., significantly higher energies than preceding radio arrays.

Japan to nearly quadruple size of high-energy cosmic-ray detector

Japan to nearly quadruple size of high-energy cosmic-ray detector

Calibration of Multi-wavelength Raman Polarization Lidar

The current high energy cosmic ray detection technology, including Cherenkov telescopes and fluorescence detector, is mainly limited by uncertainties in the determination of atmospheric parameters. LIDARs are currently the best suited technology to get atmospheric parameters for the atmosphere correction of high energy cosmic ray observatory data with one single instrument. A new Multi-wavelength Raman Polarization Lidar (AMPLE) has been developed and introduced in this paper. In order to provide precise and accurate results, lidar system should be calibrated before using for atmosphere correction in cosmic rays observatory. The calibration methods and results of AMPLE have been presented, including overlap function calibration, multi-wavelength channel calibration, depolarization calibration. In order to verify the accuracy of parameter measured by AMPLE lidar system, the comparison with radio sounder and sun-photometer has been done. The results show AMPLE lidar system has the ability to precisely measure the vertical profile of the atmosphere properties without any assumption and is a good choice for cosmic rays observatory to get atmosphere correction information.

A balloon experiment using CALET prototype (bCALET-2)

CALET (CALorimetric Electron Telescope) is a high energy cosmic-ray detector to be installed on International Space Station in 2015 to carry out accurate measurements of high energy electrons and gamma-rays. For verification of the detector performance, we carried out balloon experiments using CALET prototype detectors in May 2006 (bCALET-1) and in August 2009 (bCALET-2). In this paper we mainly report about the second experiment using bCALET-2. bCALET-2 is a calorimetric instrument composed of a 3.58 radiation length thick tungsten-scintillating fiber imaging calorimeter (IMC) and a 13.4 radiation length thick bismuth–germanium-oxide calorimeter (TASC). The concept of the structure is similar to that of CALET, but the number of sensors and the thickness of materials were optimized for the balloon experiment. The observation was carried out at the Taiki Aerospace Research Field of JAXA in Hokkaido, and the detector was flown successfully for 2.5h at a level altitude of 35km. The observed events were analyzed by methods developed through Monte Carlo simulations, and the energy spectra of electrons and atmospheric gamma-rays in the energy range of 1–30GeV were obtained and compared to the results of previous experiments.

KASCADE-Grande observation of features in the cosmic ray spectrum between knee and ankle

The detection of high-energy cosmic rays above a few hundred TeV is realized by the observation of extensive air-showers. By using the multi-detector setup of KASCADE-Grande, and here in particular the detectors of the large Grande array, the energy spectrum and the elemental composition of high-energy cosmic rays in the energy range from 10 PeV to 1 EeV are investigated. The estimation of energy and mass of the high-energy primary particles is based on the combined analysis of the total number of charged particles and the total number of muons measured by the detector arrays of Grande and KASCADE, respectively. The latest analysis results have shown that in the all-particle spectrum two features are present: a hardening of the spectrum at energies around 20 PeV and a steepening, i.e. a knee-like structure, at 80-90 PeV. The latter one was found to be due to a decrease of flux of the heavy mass component.