Detection Of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Research Articles

Comparison of Genetic Profiling between Primary Tumor and Circulating Tumor Cells Captured by Microfluidics in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: Tumor Heterogeneity or Allele Dropout?

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a leading cause of cancer mortality among women but unfortunately is usually not diagnosed until advanced stage. Early detection of EOC is of paramount importance to improve outcomes. Liquid biopsy of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) is emerging as one of the promising biomarkers for early detection of solid tumors. However, discrepancies in terms of oncogenomics (i.e., different genetic defects detected) between the germline, primary tumor, and liquid biopsy are a serious concern and may adversely affect downstream cancer management. Here, we illustrate the potential and pitfalls of CTCs by presenting two patients of Stage I EOC. We successfully isolated and recovered CTCs by a silicon-based nanostructured microfluidics system, the automated Cell RevealTM. We examined the genomics of CTCs as well as the primary tumor and germline control (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) by whole exome sequencing. Different signatures were then investigated by comparisons of identified mutation loci distinguishing those that may only arise in the primary tumor or CTCs. A novel model is proposed to test if the highly variable allele frequencies, between primary tumor and CTCs results, are due to allele dropout in plural CTCs or tumor heterogeneity. This proof-of-principle study provides a strategy to elucidate the possible cause of genomic discrepancy between the germline, primary tumor, and CTCs, which is helpful for further large-scale use of such technology to be integrated into clinical management protocols.

Expression of Circulating MicroRNA-141 in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.

BackgroundEpithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a lethal disease due to late diagnosis and lack of effective screening methods. MicroRNA (miR/miRNA) plays an important role in ovarian carcinogenesis and may serve as a non-invasive biomarker for EOC. This study aimed to assess miR-141 expression in the blood plasma of patients with EOC and healthy subjects and determine its association with the clinical stage of EOC.MethodsThis cross-sectional study used blood plasma from 30 newly diagnosed untreated patients with EOC and 25 healthy subjects. The mean age was 47.73 (SD = 10.29) years for EOC and 44.48 (SD = 16.14) years for healthy subject. The total RNA was isolated from blood plasma and reversed transcribed to obtain cDNA. The expression of miR-141 was measured by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and calculated using 2−ΔΔCt methods. The data were analysed using Mann-Whitney test.ResultsThe expression of miR-141 was upregulated 8.41 fold in the blood plasma of EOC patients compared to healthy controls (P < 0.001). Expression of miR-141 in the advanced stage was upregulated 4.2 fold compared to the early stage (P < 0.001).ConclusionThe miR-141 was upregulated in the blood plasma of EOC and associated with an advanced stage of disease, suggesting it has potential as a biomarker for EOC detection.

Analysis of Multimerin 1 (MMRN1) expression in ovarian cancer.

Ovarian cancer, the most lethal gynecological cancer, is the fifth most common cause of cancer-related deaths in women. A cost-effective and non-invasive early screening method for ovarian cancer is required to reduce the high mortality rate. Saliva is a clinically informative unique fluid, which is useful for novel approaches to prognosis, clinical diagnosis, and monitoring for non-invasive detection of disease. Multimerin1 (MMRN1) is a di-sulfide linked homo-polymeric glycoprotein from EMILIN family. Altered expression of MMRN1 has been reported in hepatocellular carcinoma, cervical cancer, and ovarian cancer. But, its role in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is not clear and well documented. In this study, expression of Multimerin 1 was validated in saliva and tissues of EOC patients and age-matched controls by western blotting, ELISA, RT-PCR, and immunohistochemistry. Significant over expression of MMRN1 was observed by western blot and ELISA in saliva samples of EOC patients. The average concentration of MMRN1 in the saliva of healthy controls was 28.7pg/ml (SE ± 1.76), 42.53pg/ml (SE ± 4.06) in low grade and 52.91pg/ml (SE ± 4.24) with p < 0.01 in high-grade EOC. Upregulated cytoplasmic expression of MMRN1 was observed in EOC tissue by immunohistochemistry. Our results suggest that MMRN1 expression is associated with EOC progression and MMRN1 may be potential biomarker candidates for early-stage EOC detection however further experiments are required in a large cohort to establish this proposition. Also, saliva can be explored as a novel medium for ovarian cancer diagnosis.

MicroRNA as Biomarker in Ovarian Cancer Management: Advantages and Challenges.

Ovarian cancer is the most prevalent gynecological malignancy affecting women throughout the globe. Ovarian cancer has several subtypes, including epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) with a whopping incidence rate of 239,000 per year, making it the sixth most common gynecological malignancy worldwide. Despite advancement of detection and therapeutics, death rate accounts for 152,000 per annum. Several protein-based biomarkers such as CA125 and HE4 are currently being used for diagnosis, but their sensitivity and specificity for early detection of ovarian cancer are under question. MicroRNA (a small noncoding RNA molecule that participates in post-transcription regulation of gene expression) and its functional deregulation in most cancers have been discovered in the previous two decades. Studies support that miRNA deregulation has an epigenetic component as well. Aberrant miRNA expression is often correlated with the form of EOC tumor, histological grade, prognosis, and FIGO stage. In this review, we addressed epigenetic regulation of miRNAs, the latest research on miRs as a biomarker in the detection of EOC, and tailored assays to use miRNAs as a biomarker in ovarian cancer diagnosis.

Is HE4 Superior over CA-125 in the Follow-up of Patients with Epithelial Ovarian Cancer?

Notwithstanding important advances in the treatment of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC), this disease is still a leading cause of global high mortality from gynecological malignancies. Recurrence in EOC is inevitable and it is responsible for poor survival rates. There is a critical need for novel effective biomarkers with improved accuracy compared to the standard carbohydrate antigen-125 (CA-125) for follow-up. The human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is used for early detection of EOC (ROMA algorithm) as well as for predicting optimal cytoreduction after neoadjuvant chemotherapy and survival outcomes. Notably, the emerging HE4 is a promising prognostic biomarker that has displayed better accuracy in various recent studies for detecting recurrent disease. In this mini-review, we discussed the potential of HE4 as an accurate predictor of EOC recurrence.

Improved Sonographic Detection of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: New Concepts and Evolving Technology.

Improved Sonographic Detection of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: New Concepts and Evolving Technology.

Detection of aberrant methylation of HOXA9 and HIC1 through multiplex MethyLight assay in serum DNA for the early detection of epithelial ovarian cancer.

Accumulated evidence revealed that aberrant CpG island hypermethylation plays an important role in carcinogenesis which can serve as a promising target for molecular detection in body fluids. Despite a myriad of attempts to diagnose ovarian cancer (OC) at an early stage, this clinical aim remains a major challenge. To date, no single biomarker is able to accurately detect early OC in either tissue or body fluid. Aberrant DNA methylation patterns in circulating DNA provide highly specific cancer signals. In our study, we establish a novel panel of methylation-specific genes for the development of a TaqMan based qPCR assay to quantify methylation levels. We analyzed promoter methylation of homeobox A9 (HOXA9) and hypermethylated in cancer 1 (HIC1) quantitatively in 120 tissue samples and in 70 matched serum cell-free DNA (CFDNA) of cancerous and noncancerous samples by MethyLight assay. HOXA9 and HIC1 methylation occurred in 82.3 and 80.0% of OC tissue samples in singleplex assay, thereby confirming that methylation was highly cancer-specific. When either or both gene promoter showed methylation, the sensitivity was 88.2% with a specificity of 88.6% in tissue samples. The combined sensitivity for this novel marker panel in serum CFDNA was 88.9% (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.95). In contrast, no hypermethylation was observed in serum from matched cancer-free control women. Our results confirm the elevated performance of novel epigenetic marker panel (HOXA9 and HIC1) when analyzed in tissue and matched serum samples. Our findings reveal the potential of this biomarker panel as a suitable diagnostic serum biomarker for early screening of OC.

The Role of 3D Power Doppler in Screening for Ovarian Cancer

Background: It is clear that in developed countries more women die annually from ovarian cancer than from all other gynecologic malignancies combined. Objective: The aim of this article is to analyze current possibilities and propose adequate measures which can help the development of effective screening methods/assays for the early detection of epithelial ovarian cancer. Results and Discussion: This article updates the status of ovarian cancer screening and addresses most relevant studies published during the last five years. The developments that followed the review are best summarized in reference to the screening tests, target populations and newly published trials. The possible role of 3D ultrasound technology, especially 3D power Doppler imaging, in early and accurate detection of ovarian malignancy is discussed. We described our new ovarian cancer screening trial, which started in January 2001. Improvements in ultrasound technology such as 3D volume acquisition and 3D power Doppler imaging may have clinical utility in a more reliable identification of an abnormal ovarian vascularity and architecture. 3D volume acquisition allows for careful evaluation of the internal surfaces of cyst walls for excrescences otherwise not appreciated by 2D ultrasound. Conclusion: While the addition of 3D power Doppler provides a new tool for measuring the quality of ovarian tumor angiogenesis, improving accurate diagnosis of ovarian malignancies, its clinical value for the early detection of ovarian carcinoma has yet to be determined.

Detection of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer using C8Magnetic Bead Separation and MALDI-TOF Plasma Proteome Profiling in Egyptian Females

Background:Ovarian cancer is the seventh most common cancer in females with the highest mortality rate of all gynecological cancers due to its late discovery and ambiguous symptoms. Thus, there is a need for new promising strategies to diagnose ovarian cancer. We aimed at finding a characteristic plasma proteome pattern that could be used for the detection of epithelial ovarian cancer, in comparison with benign ovarian masses and healthy controls. We also aimed at differentiating between profiling of plasma proteins in early and advanced stages of ovarian cancer and between serous and non-serous histopathological types. Methods:The combination of MagSi-proteomics C8 beads, Ultraflextreme MALDI-TOF and ClinPro Tools software was used to compare the plasma protein spectra from 50 patients with epithelial ovarian cancer, 20 patients with benign ovarian masses and 50 age matched healthy females. Results:A plasma proteome profile of 21 peaks differentiated patients with epithelial ovarian cancer from healthy controls with a sensitivity of 73 % and a specificity of 82.8% upon external validation, while a 5-peak profile differentiated patients with epithelial ovarian cancer from patients with benign ovarian masses with a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 73.7%. A 20 peak profile was generated to discriminate between early and late stages of the disease with 88.3% recognition capability and 70% cross validation. Conclusion:MALDI-TOF proteomic profiling represents a promising potential tool for diagnosing epithelial ovarian cancer, discriminating between early and advanced stages and between serous and non- serous types.

Abstract AP07: PROTEIN AND IMAGING MARKERS FOR EARLY DETECTION OF EPITHELIAL OVARIAN CANCER

Abstract A central problem in ovarian cancer is late diagnosis, where the 5-year survival rate plummets well below 50%. It is now believed that a significant fraction of ovarian high grade serous carcinoma (HGSC) may actually start in the fallopian tubes (FTs), and that precancerous changes are detectable before metastasis to the ovary and peritoneal cavity occurs. A recently published molecular evolutionary analysis identifies a window of 7 years between development of a serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma (STIC) and initiation of ovarian carcinoma, with metastases following rapidly thereafter. The authors are working to address the unmet clinical need for a minimally invasive test for early (pre-metastatic) ovarian cancer. Existing whole-body imaging techniques and transvaginal ultrasound have thus far displayed inadequate resolution and sensitivity, however optical imaging methods could fulfill the criteria for detection of primary HGSC when it is still located in the FTs and before it has spread to the ovaries. We have shown that two optical imaging modalities, optical coherence tomography (OCT) and multispectral fluorescence imaging (MFI) have great promise for detection of ovarian and FT abnormalities. In a small ex-vivo study, we found that 5 MFI measurements were sufficient to distinguish between normal, cancerous, and benign FT and ovary tissue with 100% sensitivity and specificity. We used laparoscopic OCT in an in-vivo study of 17 women and revealed distinct image features for normal, cancerous, and benign abnormalities of the ovary. For minimally invasive imaging of the fallopian tubes, a sub-millimeter diameter, flexible, steerable endoscope is necessary in order to navigate through the natural orifice of the ostium in the uterus. We have recently prototyped the smallest (0.8 mm diameter) OCT/MFI imaging endoscope with a forward-viewing imaging channel. The system as tested has approximately 70 degree full field of view, a working distance from 1 mm to infinity, and resolution that varies from 35 µm at 1 mm to 180 µm at 10 mm working distance. Such an imaging test is minimally invasive however not appropriate for wholesale screening of the general population. Therefore, we propose to utilize it as an adjunct confirmatory test after an initial positive or suspicious blood test. Our preliminary data indicate that there are significant changes in serum protein biomarkers in HGSC cases more than 18 months before diagnosis. We have identified FBG and PF4 as pre-diagnostic biomarkers of HGSC with 18-84 months lead time, and have generated and validated a 3-biomarker panel (FBG, PF4, and CA125) that classifies HGSC with &amp;gt;80% sensitivity/&amp;gt;70% specificity and 18-84 months lead time. We have identified overexpression of several glycolytic enzymes in STIC lesions and in human pre-diagnostic serum samples, indicating potential usefulness of these proteins as screening biomarkers and potential utility of glycolysis as imaging biomarker of STIC lesion. Our continuing work is focused on refining the serum protein biomarker sensitivity and specificity, creating a second-generation falloposcope for a first-in-women feasibility study, and creating an integrated model that incorporates both sets of data into an early EOC detection method. Citation Format: Jennifer K. Barton, Anna E. Lokshin, David A. Fishman, John F. Black. PROTEIN AND IMAGING MARKERS FOR EARLY DETECTION OF EPITHELIAL OVARIAN CANCER [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 12th Biennial Ovarian Cancer Research Symposium; Sep 13-15, 2018; Seattle, WA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Clin Cancer Res 2019;25(22 Suppl):Abstract nr AP07.

High Resolution Based Quantitative Determination of Methylation Status of CDH1 and VIM Gene in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.

Background:DNA promoter methylation is widely explored epigenetic phenomena, known to effect gene expression and further perturbation in cellular homeostasis. Myriad of studies have leveraged promoter methylation and its potential as biomarker for various types of cancer. Aim of present study is to investigate promoter methylation of CDH1 and VIM gene and etiology of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). Methods:Most of previous studies were qualitative; we have quantitatively assessed methylation levels in 50 EOC cases and control each through high recognition melt (HRM) technique. Results:At 10 % cutoff for CDH1 94% of EOC cases were found to be methylated with mean methylation of 45±13.8, whereas for control mean methylation was found to be 7.3±3.7 amongst 16 % methylation positive control samples. For VIM methylation was detected in 96% of cases with mean of 50.44±11.7 in EOC and in 12% methylation positive samples for control mean methylation was 6.24±4.3. Conclusion:In short HRM based DNA methylation can serve as a robust and sensitive diagnostic method for promoter methylation detection and as a biomarker for early epithelial ovarian cancer detection.

Europium Nanoparticle-Based Sialyl-Tn Monoclonal Antibody Discriminates Epithelial Ovarian Cancer-Associated CA125 from Benign Sources.

The Sialyl-Thomsen-nouveau antigen (STn) is abundantly produced on many types of human epithelial cancers including epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). We previously developed an EOC-specific lectin sandwich immunoassay (CA125MGL) using a human macrophage galactose-binding lectin coated on fluorescent europium nanoparticles (Eu+3-NPs) as a tracer and an anti-CA125-specific mAb for capture. Here we have identified a novel STn-mAb that efficiently recognizes the EOC-associated STn antigen on CA125 when coated on Eu+3-NPs. CA125 from the ovarian cancer cell line OVCAR-3, placental homogenate, and ascites fluid from patients with liver cirrhosis was captured by anti-CA125 antibody immobilized on microtitration wells and traced with anti-STn-mAb-Eu+3-NPs. Samples from EOC or patients with endometriosis with marginally increased conventional CA125 immunoassay (CA125IA; 35-200 U/mL) and healthy controls were analyzed. An analytically sensitive CA125STn assay that specifically recognized the CA125 isoform produced by OVCAR-3 was achieved. Serum CA125STn concentration was significantly higher in EOC patients than in those with endometriosis (P < 0.001). Furthermore, the sensitivity for detection of EOC with CA125STn assay was 73.3% when 95% of endometriosis cases were undetectable. Our findings suggest that Eu+3-NPs-based CA125STn assay could help reduce the false-positive rates of CA125IA to improve differential diagnosis. The results encourage studying further the potential use of CA125STn to detect EOC at earlier clinical stages. This approach warrants further investigation in other cancers as well.

Discovery and Validation of Novel Biomarkers for Detection of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.

Detection of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) poses a critical medical challenge. However, novel biomarkers for diagnosis remain to be discovered. Therefore, innovative approaches are of the utmost importance for patient outcome. Here, we present a concept for blood-based biomarker discovery, investigating both epithelial and specifically stromal compartments, which have been neglected in search for novel candidates. We queried gene expression profiles of EOC including microdissected epithelium and adjacent stroma from benign and malignant tumours. Genes significantly differentially expressed within either the epithelial or the stromal compartments were retrieved. The expression of genes whose products are secreted yet absent in the blood of healthy donors were validated in tissue and blood from patients with pelvic mass by NanoString analysis. Results were confirmed by the comprehensive gene expression database, CSIOVDB (Ovarian cancer database of Cancer Science Institute Singapore). The top 25% of candidate genes were explored for their biomarker potential, and twelve were able to discriminate between benign and malignant tumours on transcript levels (p < 0.05). Among them T-cell differentiation protein myelin and lymphocyte (MAL), aurora kinase A (AURKA), stroma-derived candidates versican (VCAN), and syndecan-3 (SDC), which performed significantly better than the recently reported biomarker fibroblast growth factor 18 (FGF18) to discern malignant from benign conditions. Furthermore, elevated MAL and AURKA expression levels correlated significantly with a poor prognosis. We identified promising novel candidates and found the stroma of EOC to be a suitable compartment for biomarker discovery.

Clinical Diagnostic Marker for Early Detection of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: Classical biomarkers and MicroRNAs

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is one of the poorest prognostic types of all gynecologic cancers. In this type of cancer, more than 70% of women are diagnosed at an advanced stage. The asymptomatic nature of ovarian cancer is the main impediment in the early detection of the disease, which invariably increases the mortality rate. The current screening modalities of EOC include transvaginal ultrasound, pelvic mass examination, and detection of serum biomarker CA125 which lack higher accuracy in diagnosing ovarian cancer at an early stage. The recent studies emphasize the use of combinations of multiple biomarkers which increase the sensitivity and specificity for early diagnosis of this cancer. Much attention and importancenow days has been given on studying the involvement of microRNAs (miRNAs)in different cancer pathogenesis and also as a prognostic marker. Recent researches emphasize on identifying several miRNAs to be associated with the specific EOC stage and the EOC histotypes. This review summarizes the importance and current challenges in the screening of ovarian cancer by biomarkers such as CA125, HE4, and miRNAs with particular emphasis on diagnosis of the disease at an early stage.

Histopathological Study of Ovarian Lump and Serum Tumor Marker Ca 125 estimation as a Screening Tool

Background: Ovarian tumor is the fourth commonest cancer in female in Nepal. About 80% is benign and 20% of these tumors are malignant. Due to its complex nature, vagueness and non-specificity of the symptoms it produces, the ovarian neoplasm can mislead both the doctor and patients. Hence this study was undertaken with aims &amp; objectives to study the morphology of ovarian specimens as well as estimate serum CA125 as screening tool. Material and Methods: A study of over one year comprised of 75 specimens of ovary diagnosed in the Department of Pathology, Nobel medical college and teaching hospital, Biratnagar. After thorough gross examination and preparation of H&amp;E stained slides the lesion of ovary were classified as per WHO classification. Also, preoperative blood samples were obtained from patients for estimation of serum CA125 level. Blood samples was also drawn from 20 healthy females in reproductive age group who acted as controls. Results: Of the 75 cases of ovarian mass, based on histology 75% were benign, and 25% were malignant. Surface epithelial tumors were the commonest (68%) of all ovarian tumor, followed by germ cell tumors (13%), sex cord–stromal tumors (6%). Serous Cystadenoma (29%) was the commonest benign tumor and serous cystadenocarcinoma (9%) commonest malignant neoplasm. CA125 levels was raised in epithelial ovarian cancers. Maximum rise was seen in serous cystadenocarcinoma. Exceptionally a small percentage of epithelial cancer showed normal level (false negative). Also, few benign tumors, non-epithelial tumors and even non-neoplastic lesions showed false positive rise in CA125 (false positive). Conclusion: Accurate histopathological evaluation of ovarian specimen is necessary both in terms of therapeutic intervention as well as prognosis. CA125 is an important screening tool for detection of epithelial ovarian cancers. Journal of Nobel Medical College Volume 7, Number 1, Issue 12, January-June 2018, Page: 30-36

Identification of six serum antigens and autoantibodies for the detection of early stage epithelial ovarian carcinoma by bioinformatics analysis and liquid chip analysis.

The early detection of ovarian cancer is critical for improving the prognosis of patients, but there are currently insufficient tumor biomarkers for early detection owing to their low diagnostic sensitivity and specificity. The aim of the present study was to investigate the use of the serum antigens C-C motif chemokine ligand 18 and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1, and autoantibodies C1D, transmembrane 4 L six family member 1, zinc finger protein 675 and fragile X mental retardation 1 autosomal homolog 1, for the early screening of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). The expression of these sex genes/proteins in ovarian cancer and normal ovarian tissue was examined, and the potential functions of the six genes/proteins in ovarian cancer were analyzed by bioinformatics. Finally, these data were verified in clinical samples, and the multi-analyte suspension array method was compared with the ELISA method. Taken together, these data indicated that these six genes/proteins may serve as potential biomarkers for the early detection of EOC.

Beyond the Biomarker: Understanding the Diverse Roles of Human Epididymis Protein 4 in the Pathogenesis of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.

Human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is an important clinical biomarker used for the detection of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). While much is known about the predictive power of HE4 clinically, less has been reported regarding its molecular role in the progression of EOC. A deeper understanding of HE4’s mechanistic functions may help contribute to the development of novel targeted therapies. Thus far, it has been difficult to recommend HE4 as a therapeutic target owing to the fact that its role in the progression of EOC has not been extensively evaluated. This review summarizes what is collectively known about HE4 signaling and how it functions to promote tumorigenesis, chemoresistance, and metastasis in EOC, with the goal of providing valuable insights that will have the potential to aide in the development of new HE4-targeted therapies.

Metabolomic profiling suggests long chain ceramides and sphingomyelins as a possible diagnostic biomarker of epithelial ovarian cancer

IntroductionEpithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a disease with a poor survival rate mostly due to its discovery in late stages. The aim of this study was to investigate the metabolomic profile of ovarian cancer with the intention of identifying and describing novel biomarkers with diagnostic potential. Material and methodsTargeted serum metabolomic profiling was performed on 15 patients with ovarian cancer, 21 healthy controls and 21 patients with benign ovarian conditions, using HPLC–TQ/MS. ResultsPanel of 49 top performing biomarkers shows separation between EOC and controls with 87% specificity and 87% sensitivity with AUC of 93% (CI 90%–95%). Using only 5 top biomarkers, specificity of 80% and sensitivity of 83% was achieved on extended sample set. Most significant biomarkers belong to sphingolipid classes, especially long chain ceramides and sphingomyelins. Different concentrations of various fatty acid chain lengths ceramides and sphingomyelins are also implying their respective roles in cell proliferation and growth inhibition. ConclusionLong chain ceramides and sphingomyelins may serve as a novel biomarker for epithelial ovarian cancer detection and may also offer insight into the role of sphingolipid metabolism in cell proliferation.

A Comprehensive Review of the Diagnostic and Treatment Methods for Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer is amongst the most life-threatening malignancy of the female reproductive system, whereas 90% of those ovarian cancers are epithelial with an overall poor five-year survival rate of 44% across all stages and all races [1]–[2], [31]. This paper aims to review the current treatment and diagnostic strategies for ovarian cancer [3]. Using grounded substantial research, multiple figures were developed to show the relations of ovarian cancer diagnostics and ovarian cancer therapeutics. It is a great start to look into what may be causing most patients to become resistant to the current standard of care, platinum-based chemotherapeutics, for ovarian cancer [4]. A comprehensive literature review will be used to understand the genetic basis of the disease and possible cancer growth patterns, so we could possibly introduce better diagnostics and therapeutics [5]. The findings show that there are a variety of treatments options other than the standard of care, platinum-based therapy [6]. Nanoparticle encapsulation therapy is one way that has been approved by the FDA to therapeutically treat ovarian cancer without the platinum resistant side effects [7]. Also, the discovery of different diagnostics for ovarian cancer can help with better individualized treatments for patients with different forms of ovarian cancer [8]. Currently, the only serous diagnostic test for the detection of ovarian cancer is high levels of Cancer Antigen 125 (CA-125), which is only shown in 50% of early staged ovarian cancers [16]. The main treatment option for ovarian cancer is platinum-based drugs, in which most cases of patients with ovarian cancer will become resistant. Detecting and treating ovarian cancer while the cells are small, contained, and still in the early stages in vivo still remains to be a challenge [9]. Here, we will demonstrate the bioelectrical interactions of the ovarian cancer cells fused with the magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with the use of an MRI. The findings demonstrate that the diagnostic method for the early detection of epithelial ovarian cancer requires the use of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with specific ligand external profiles as a contrast reagent to make the small-sized ovarian cancer cells appear more visible under MRI.

A Comprehensive Review of the Diagnostic and Treatment Methods for Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer is amongst the most life-threatening malignancy of the female reproductive system, whereas 90% of those ovarian cancers are epithelial with an overall poor five-year survival rate of 44% across all stages and all races [1]–[2], [31]. This paper aims to review the current treatment and diagnostic strategies for ovarian cancer [3]. Using grounded substantial research, multiple figures were developed to show the relations of ovarian cancer diagnostics and ovarian cancer therapeutics. It is a great start to look into what may be causing most patients to become resistant to the current standard of care, platinum-based chemotherapeutics, for ovarian cancer [4]. A comprehensive literature review will be used to understand the genetic basis of the disease and possible cancer growth patterns, so we could possibly introduce better diagnostics and therapeutics [5]. The findings show that there are a variety of treatments options other than the standard of care, platinum-based therapy [6]. Nanoparticle encapsulation therapy is one way that has been approved by the FDA to therapeutically treat ovarian cancer without the platinum resistant side effects [7]. Also, the discovery of different diagnostics for ovarian cancer can help with better individualized treatments for patients with different forms of ovarian cancer [8]. Currently, the only serous diagnostic test for the detection of ovarian cancer is high levels of Cancer Antigen 125 (CA-125), which is only shown in 50% of early staged ovarian cancers [16]. The main treatment option for ovarian cancer is platinum-based drugs, in which most cases of patients with ovarian cancer will become resistant. Detecting and treating ovarian cancer while the cells are small, contained, and still in the early stages in vivo still remains to be a challenge [9]. Here, we will demonstrate the bioelectrical interactions of the ovarian cancer cells fused with the magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with the use of an MRI. The findings demonstrate that the diagnostic method for the early detection of epithelial ovarian cancer requires the use of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with specific ligand external profiles as a contrast reagent to make the small-sized ovarian cancer cells appear more visible under MRI.