Destruction Layers Research Articles

RESEARCH OF THE ZONAL STRUCTURE OF SINTERING LAYER

The process of zones formation in the layer was investigated. A new research method was developed for the saturation zone in the layer by discharge of sintering bowls with the structure conservation. Sintering mixture was pelletized using of melt paraffin instead of water. The destruction of the granules in areas with a dry charge material above the zone of saturation forms a zone of fine fractions with a height of about 6 mm with low gas permeability. Zone of fines increases the pressure loss in 1.4 times and the shrinkage of the layer – by 20–25 mm. Fines form a channel course of the gases in the zone of saturation clogging the channels with a diameter less than 0.6 mm. Negative impact on the permeability of the destruction layer of the pellets in the drying zone – intensive heating zone – and the saturation zone should be reduced to improve the efficiency of the sintering process.

Accretion of planetary matter and the lithium problem in the 16 Cygni stellar system

The 16 Cyg system is composed of two solar analogs with similar masses and ages. A red dwarf is in orbit around 16 Cyg A whereas 16 Cyg B hosts a giant planet. The abundances of heavy elements are similar in the two stars but lithium is much more depleted in 16 Cyg B that in 16 Cyg A, by a factor of at least 4.7. The interest of studying the 16 Cyg system is that the two star have the same age and the same initial composition. The presently observed differences must be due to their different evolution, related to the fact that one of them hosts a planet contrary to the other one. We computed models of the two stars which precisely fit the observed seismic frequencies. We used the Toulouse Geneva Evolution Code (TGEC) that includes complete atomic diffusion (including radiative accelerations). We compared the predicted surface abundances with the spectroscopic observations and confirmed that another mixing process is needed. We then included the effect of accretion-induced fingering convection. The accretion of planetary matter does not change the metal abundances but leads to lithium destruction which depends on the accreted mass. A fraction of earth mass is enough to explain the lithium surface abundances of 16 Cyg B. We also checked the beryllium abundances. In the case of accretion of heavy matter onto stellar surfaces, the accreted heavy elements do not remain in the outer convective zones but they are mixed downwards by fingering convection induced by the unstable $\mu$-gradient. Depending on the accreted mass, this mixing process may transport lithium down to its nuclear destruction layers and lead to an extra lithium depletion at the surface. A fraction of earth mass is enough to explain a lithium ratio of 4.7 in the 16 Cyg system. In this case beryllium is not destroyed. Such a process may be frequent in planet host stars and should be studied in other cases in the future.

A Late Iron IIA Destruction Layer at Tel Aphek in the Sharon Plain

The article deals with a late Iron IIA destruction layer at Tel Aphek in the Sharon Plain. The remains, which were uncovered during Moshe Kochavi and Pirhiya Beck's excavations, have important implications for the history of the central Coastal Plain. The study of the finds suggests that during the late Iron IIA, Aphek increased in size, and that the ceramic tradition of the town exhibited similarities to that of the Northern Kingdom. This may be explained against the background of Israelite expansion to the coast during the 9th century BCE. Detailed analysis of the pottery repertoire indicates that Aphek was destroyed during the final phase of the Iron IIA, presumably in the course of an Aramean military campaign to the south.

King David's City at Khirbet Qeiyafa: Results of the Second Radiocarbon Dating Project

Seventeen samples of burnt olive pits discovered inside a jar in the destruction layer of the Iron Age city of Khirbet Qeiyafa were analyzed by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating. Of these, four were halved and sent to two different laboratories to minimize laboratory bias. The dating of these samples is ~1000 BC. Khirbet Qeiyafa is currently the earliest known example of a fortified city in the Kingdom of Judah and contributes direct evidence to the heated debate on the biblical narrative relating to King David. Was he the real historical ruler of an urbanized state-level society in the early 10th century BC or was this level of social development reached only at the end of the 8th century BC? We can conclude that there were indeed fortified centers in the Davidic kingdom from the studies presented. In addition, the dating of Khirbet Qeiyafa has far-reaching implications for the entire Levant. The discovery of Cypriot pottery at the site connects the 14C datings to Cyprus and the renewal of maritime trade between the island and the mainland in the Iron Age. A stone temple model from Khirbet Qeiyafa, decorated with triglyphs and a recessed doorframe, points to an early date for the development of this typical royal architecture of the Iron Age Levant.

Etching Morphology of Vitreous Silicon Dioxide in HF-Based Solution

The surface morphology of quartz glass etched in HF acid is influenced by many factors, such as the quality of polishing, types of the quartz glasses, metal ion in HF acid, etc. This paper conducted an analysis on these factors and tried to make improvements. Meanwhile, this experiment approved of the model of both destructive layer and the varying of closed micro-cracks in the process of etching. Besides, the changing law of both ditch-like and pit-like flaws was investigated in this experiment, and conclusions could be drawn as follows: at the concave curvature, the bigger the radius of curvature is, the faster the etching will be; The etching rate with protruding curvature is higher than that of concave curvature; The etching rate with concave curvature is lower than that on the plane surface.

The olive tree-ring problematic dating

We are glad to see that our paper has stimulated a lively debate, and we acknowledge the appreciation of our work by Bietak, Kuniholm and MacGillivray as well as that of those who oppose our hypothesis (Bruins & van der Plicht, Friedrich et al., all above). The enigma of the dating of the Santorini eruption is a long-lasting one, and because of its bearing on the dating of several eastern Mediterranean civilisations, has attracted significant attention. The potentially great importance of the Santorini olive branch used by Friedrich et al. (2006) was that it came from the site itself, and possibly belonged to the destruction layer. As such, the sincere and serious attempt to date it made by Friedrich et al. (2006) should be appreciated. Unfortunately, large olive branches may exist as dead limbs for a very long time and thus represent earlier periods.

New data on the periodization and chronology of the Kura-Araxes culture in Armenia

This article discusses the following issues : The Kura-Araxes sequence was of discrete character ; its periodization can be dated in-between 3600/ 3500-2900 (KA I) and 2900-2600/ 2500 (KA II) BC. The discreteness of the Kura-Araxes phenomenon is refl ected in the largely single-layered character of both early (KA I) and late (KA II) settlements : a destructive layer demonstrates the discontinuity of certain multi-layered (KA I-II) settlements. The KA I phase represented throughout Armenia is marked by ‘ Elar-Aragats’ type ceramics, which belong to a rather homogeneous complex, widespread almost all over the Armenian Highland. The homogeneity of the complex disintegrates around 2900 BC, and the relative unity is followed by a mosaic of local ceramic styles. The KA II phase contains a series of ceramic complexes similar in basic characteristics but stylistically rather specific. Today, at least three synchronous complexes can be identified on the territory of Armenia, whose areas correspond to physical-geographical regions of the country : the ‘Shresh-Mokhrablur’ complex in the central part of Ararat valley, ‘Karnut-Shengavit’ to the north and east (Aragatsotn, Shirak, Kotayk, Lori-Pambak regions), and ‘Ayrum-Teghut’ in the basins of Aghstev and Debed rivers.

BETH-SHEMESH AND SELLOPOULO: TWO COMMEMORATIVE SCARABS OF AMENHOTEP III AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO AEGEAN CHRONOLOGY

A medium-size Amenhotep III scarab recently discovered in the excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel, together with two decorated Late Minoan IIIA1 cups enables a fresh look at the synchronism between Late Minoan IIIA1 and Amenhotep III. The scarab is identified as commemorative, produced on the occasion of Amenhotep III's first Jubilee orSedfestival. In light of this interpretation a new examination of the renowned and debated Amenhotep III scarab from Sellopoulo Tomb 4 is presented. It is proposed here to identify this scarab also as commemorative as it includes, in addition to the pharaoh's prenomen, an epithet which relates it too to Amenhotep III's firstSedfestival.Both scarabs, from Beth-Shemesh and Sellopoulo, are shown to have been produced between Amenhotep III's Regnal Years 28/25 and 34 respectively – most probably around Regnal Year 28 – and presumably reached their destination about that time. Further analysis led to the conclusion that the envisioned Egyptian embassy to the Aegean, which may have been the source for the ‘Aegean List’ of Kom el-Hetan, took place also during Amenhotep III's Regnal Year 28.The two culturally different and geographically remote contexts in which the Beth-Shemesh and Sellopoulo scarabs were found – a destruction layer in Canaan and a tomb in Crete – tell the same story: Late Minoan IIIA1 was in vogue at least until the last decade of Amenhotep III's reign in the mid-fourteenth centurybc. This conclusion has important implications for the political and cultural history of Knossos and may anchor the sequence of events of the Final Palatial period in a more solid chronological framework.

KNOSSIAN GIFTS? TWO LATE MINOAN IIIA1 CUPS FROM TEL BETH-SHEMESH, ISRAEL

Two Late Minoan IIIA1 cups were recently found in the excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel. They were part of a larger assemblage of local Late Bronze IIA (first half of the fourteenth centurybc) drinking and eating vessels sealed under a destruction layer in one room of a large edifice, presumably a ‘palace’. A commemorative scarab bearing the name of Amenhotep III and related to the first Jubilee (Sedfestival) in his thirtieth regnal year was found alongside the cups, providing further chronological evidence. This article examines the Late Minoan IIIA1 cups from Beth-Shemesh within their Aegean context and emphasises their close affinity with comparable cups from the palace of Knossos, catalogued and republished here. The Tel Beth-Shemesh cups are the second occurrence – after Sellopoulo Tomb 4 – of Knossian Late Minoan IIIA1 pottery found together with Amenhotep III's scarab. This new evidence strengthens the likelihood of some chronological overlap between Late Minoan IIIA1 and the reign of this Pharaoh. The article also considers the biography of the two Minoan cups, as social agents within the intricate network of the Late Bronze Age palatial gift exchange in the eastern Mediterranean. While it is possible that the cups came to Beth-Shemesh directly from Knossos, another viable option is that they arrived as a gift from the Egyptian court. The two rare Late Minoan IIIA1 Knossian cups could have reached Egypt on the occasion of Amenhotep III's much-discussed official embassy to the Aegean – including Knossos – and then been sent as royal gifts to the ruler of Beth-Shemesh.

The magnetic properties of baked clays and their implications for past geomagnetic field intensity determinations

SUMMARY Burnt clays provide a vital source of information about the archaeomagnetic field but their magnetic properties, and the dependency of these on thermal history, are diverse, complex and poorly understood. Here, we attempt to shed light on this problem through the investigation of artificial clay samples prepared from three different clay types repeatedly heated in known magnetic field to two different temperatures (400 and 700 ◦ C). Combined rock-magnetic and X-ray analyses were carried out to obtain information about the mineralogical content and magnetic properties of the diverse raw and heated clays, and also their evolution during the course of multiple heating/cooling treatments. The magnetic behaviour of the three clay types evolved significantly during the course of being repeatedly heated to both 400 and 700 ◦ C. Phyllosilicates containing iron-substitutions in their matrix apparently played an important role in supplying iron- oxides during the heatings and the iron oxides themselves underwent progressive oxidation. The samples heated to the higher temperature exhibited more ideal magnetic behaviour but even those heated only to 400 ◦ C achieved magnetic stabilization after multiple heatings. After 10 reheating treatments, samples heated to both peak temperatures yielded reliable palaeointensity results and a grand mean intensity value Fa =48.57 ±1.19µTwhichdiffersbylessthan2µT(orabout3percent)fromtheknownintensity of the inducing field. The results confirm that the thermoremanent magnetization produced as a result of multiple heatings even to moderate temperature in the antiquity can give reliable palaeointensity determination. They also highlight that materials from repeatedly used baked clay structures (kilns, hearths, etc.) may be far more appropriate for archaeointensity study than singly baked clay structures (destruction layers, floor plasters, etc.).

Pottery shreds as tools in late Neolithic Vinca

Pottery shreds as tools in late Neolithic Vinca

All That Rubble Leads to Trouble: Reassessing the Seismological Value of Archaeological Destruction Layers in Minoan Crete and Beyond

Since its discovery in the beginning of the twentieth century by British archaeologist Arthur Evans, the Bronze Age (Minoan) civilization of Crete (Greece, ca. 3000–1200 B.C.) received considerable scholarly, scientific, and popular attention (e.g., Papadopoulos, 2005). Although subject to critique and revision (e.g., Hamilakis, 2002), Evans’s ideas and hypotheses about Minoan society remain remarkably central to modern archaeological research on the island (e.g., Schoep, 2010). The recognition of the disruptive effects of earthquakes on Minoan society represents one of Evans’s enduring legacies. Earthquakes have been considered as responsible for the successive destructions of the palace of Knossos (Evans, 1928) and as convenient time markers for Minoan archaeological periods (e.g., Driessen, 1987). Nowadays, they are often seen by Minoan archaeologists as an unattractive explanatory concept (Cadogan, 2011), at least when divorced from their wider social, political, and economic contexts (e.g., Driessen and Macdonald, 1997). Fear of catastrophism, undesirable use of deus ex machina phenomena, and resistance to Occam’s razor ( lex parsimoniae )asa heuristic guide to archaeological explanation partly account for this situation. The ambiguous value of Minoan archaeological remains as indicators of ancient earthquakes may also have played a role: although damage typologies have been put forward in Greek archaeological contexts (Stiros, 1996), their applicability to Minoan earthen and rubble constructions is often limited. As a result, recognition of ancient earthquake damage on Minoan archaeological sites is frequently based on isolated observations (e.g., Sakellarakis and Sapouna-Sakellaraki, 1981; Vallianou, 1996; Monaco and Tortorici, 2004) and limited archaeological/palaeoenvironmental evidence (e.g., Gorokhovich, 2005), thereby perpetuating a catastrophist research tradition initiated by Evans more than a century ago. In the current context of increased scientific and scholarly interest in evaluating the role of archaeological data in seismotectonic studies, we feel that the time is ripe to critically evaluate the nature of Minoan archaeological data …

AN ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL STUDY OF 13TH‐CENTURY ARROWHEADS AND BOLTS FROM THE CRUSADER CASTLE OF ARSUF/ARSUR

Selected iron arrowheads and bolts retrieved from the destruction layer of the Crusader castle of Arsur/Arsuf, which was taken down by the Mamluk army (headed by Baybars) in late April 1265, were studied. Being the only site within the boundaries of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem that has thus far yielded more than 1200 iron arrowheads, an archaeometallurgical characterization was performed. The aim of this research was to study the warfare methods and manufacturing technologies used by the Mamluk and Crusader armies. Examination included optical microscopy, SEM and SEM–EDS, XPS and microhardness tests. Analysis was performed on both the metallic iron and iron oxides. Ferrous wooden ‘fossils’, which were found on and within the bolts, were dendroarchaeologically tested. The microstructure analyses show that the weapons were made of wrought iron. These results are correlated with the function of the weapons. The different microstructures of the arrowheads and the bolts indicate dissimilar manufacturing processes. The graphitization of the ropes on the bolts and the oxide phases on their surfaces both provide evidence of high‐temperature fire. The ropes support the archaeological findings that these devices were used by the Mamluks to set the Crusader castle on fire.

OSL dating in multi-strata Tel: Megiddo (Israel) as a case study

Megiddo, one of the most important mounds (Tel) in the Levant, was inhabited almost continuously from the 7th millennium to the 4th C. BC and archaeological remains have accumulated to a height of ca. 20 m. Megiddo features a significant number of destruction levels, some of which can be correlated to well-known historical events. Other destruction levels are less well dated, and in order to improve the chronological control, an OSL dating campaign was designed, particularly for those periods where the radiocarbon calibration curve incorporates large errors on radiocarbon dates.Twenty-six samples were collected from a range of archaeological periods, excavation areas and sediment types. In-situ gamma and cosmic dose rates were obtained either with Al2O3:C dosimeters that were buried at the site for 2 months or with a calibrated gamma scintillator. Very-fine-sand quartz was extracted and measured using conventional SAR to obtain the equivalent dose (De).The OSL age of many samples is older than the expected archaeological age and their De values are usually scattered. This suggests that sediments were continuously reused and recycled at Tel Megiddo without exposure to sunlight and very little fresh sediment was added directly from dust to the archaeological accumulation, challenging the basic requirement for OSL dating.Using combined criteria of sequential stratigraphic order of the samples and the over-dispersion of the measured De values helped to reject the samples that yield ages which fail to represent the age of their archeological context. Twelve of the 26 OSL ages had to be rejected, but the 14 ages which did pass the criteria agree very well with the expected archaeological ages. Thus analysis of a single sample is ineffective for determining an archeological age for a given context. Sediments from in-between building stones are more suitable than those taken from floors, streets and ash layers; samples from destruction layers should be avoided. Megiddo provides an example of the difficulties in OSL dating in a multi-period, complex archaeological site.

New light on oblong forts: excavations at Dunnideer, Aberdeenshire

This paper presents the results of the excavation of a single keyhole trench at the oblong vitrified fort of Dunnideer, Aberdeenshire, along with a brief history of the study of oblong forts and vitrification. The excavation yielded two radiocarbon dates derived from destruction layers, which are discussed along with the results of a limited programme of archaeomagnetic dating at the same location.

The Excavations at Tel 'Eton (2006–2009): A Preliminary Report

Tel 'Eton, commonly identified with biblical 'Eglon, is a large site in the trough valley in the southeastern Shephelah. Since the summer of 2006, Bar-Ilan University has been carrying out a large-scale exploration project at the site and its surroundings. The excavations were preceded by a detailed mapping of the site, which was subsequently divided into 39 sub-units. This was followed by survey and shovel tests in each of those units, and by full-scale excavations in four excavation areas. It appears that the site was first settled in the Early Bronze Age, and again in the Middle Bronze Age to the late Iron Age (8th century BCE). Following a settlement gap in the 7th–5th centuries BCE, the site was resettled for a short period in the late Persian or early Hellenistic period. Among the major finds is a thick Assyrian destruction layer (8th century BCE), which sealed many houses with their content, including many pottery vessels, metal artifacts, and botanical material (some still within the vessels), and many additional finds. The present article summarizes the results of the explorations of the site in 2006–2009.

The 9th century BCE destruction layer at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel: integrating macro- and microarchaeology

Destruction events in multi-period sites are valuable marker horizons that represent time-synchronous events across the site and sometimes between sites. Destruction layers often preserve rich finds that provide insights into site use. Here we use both macro- and microarchaeological methods to study a destruction event from the late 9th century at Tell es-Safi/Gath in Israel. A major conflagration at this specific location resulted in the consolidation of parts of the roof construction materials, thus enabling us to differentiate between roof, walls and floor materials. We could reconstruct the events which lead to the formation of an approximately 80 cm thick layer. The base of this layer that overlies the floor surface is a thin charred organic material-rich ash layer. As the clays in this layer were not altered by heat and the ceramics still have preserved residues, we conclude that the ash was produced elsewhere and was redistributed to this location. Ceramics that are associated with burnt roof sediments do not have preserved residues. We also estimate the time that each of the accumulation events might have taken, and conclude that this accumulation occurred over decades. The architecture and artifacts found within and beneath the destruction do not allow us to unequivocally identify the function of this area prior to destruction. We do however identify an unusual bin and associated stone pavement, and a corner rich in artifacts, phytoliths and charred organic material. We also show that a wall was built of fired mud bricks; a most unusual occurrence for this time period in the Levant. This study demonstrates well the usefulness of an integrated macro- and microarchaeological approach to understanding the archaeological record, as well as the benefits of using an on-site laboratory.

'Raiders on the Storm': The Violent Destruction of Leviah, an Early Bronze Age Urban Centre in the Southern Levant

Archaeological research of the Early Bronze Age (EBA) in the southern Levant is rich in evidence for the destruction of urban centres: burnt destruction layers during most stages of the EBA and massive fortifications that were repeatedly strengthened and altered testify of a troubled and insecure era. However, until recently direct evidence of actual fighting at fortified EBA settlements was virtually unknown and the destruction layers could as easily be considered as the outcome of natural disasters like earthquakes. Current excavations at Leviah have now provided the first unequivocal evidence for the storming and destruction of an EBA town in the southern Levant.

An ivory rod with a cuneiform inscription, most probably Ugaritic, from a final palatial workshop in the Lower Citadel of Tiryns

The subject of this contribution is the fragment of an ivory rod with six cuneiform signs that was found in 2002. The rod came to light in a destruction layer dating to LH III B Final within a workshop for skilled crafting inside Building XI which is situated in the northernmost part of the Lower Citadel of Tiryns. The inscription is interpreted as the first example of an Ugaritic text found outside of the Levant. The text is written from left to right combining Akkadian logographic numerical signs and at least one letter of the regular Ugaritic alphabet. After discussing different possibilities concerning the object’s function, an interpretation as a ›tally stick‹ is proposed, i.e. a mnemonic device to document numbers, quantities or possibly a message, that was used by Levantine or Cypriote specialists for skilled crafting who were working in Building XI on behalf of the palace. The find assemblage in Building XI serves as a reminder that it would be highly misleading to regard oriental objects like the ivory rod with cuneiform signs or wall brackets appearing in a Mycenaean harbor town such as Tiryns as mere ›exotica‹. Instead, contextual analysis demonstrates that the users were well aware of the special significance attached to such objects in the east and employed them in accordance with practices of Near Eastern or Cypriote origin, thus signaling their cultural affiliations.

RADIOCARBON‐DATED DESTRUCTION LAYERS: A SKELETON FOR IRON AGE CHRONOLOGY IN THE LEVANT

SummaryWe present a full‐sequence radiocarbon‐based chronological system for the Iron Age in the Levant, anchored on the dating of ten destruction layers for the years 1130–730 BC. We establish the sequence using two methods – the ‘uncalibrated weighted average’ and the Bayesian modelling. Utilizing four dating tools in combination – radiocarbon measurements, field stratigraphy, pottery typology and ancient Near Eastern historical records – facilitates solutions to chronological problems that are far beyond the resolving power of 14C dating alone. The results shed light on disputed issues related to biblical and ancient Near Eastern history, such as the expansion of the early Israelite polity from the highlands to the lowlands; the nature of the Shoshenq I campaign to Canaan; and the evolution of the conflict between northern Israel and Aram Damascus.