Desmosome Formation Research Articles

Abstract LB-065: Mutational and functional analysis of the tumor suppressor PTPRD in human melanoma

Abstract Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) tightly regulate tyrosine phosphorylation essential for cell growth, adhesion, migration, and survival. We performed a mutational analysis of the PTP gene family in cutaneous metastatic melanoma and identified 23 phosphatase genes harboring somatic mutations. Among these, receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase delta (PTPRD) is one of the most highly mutated genes, harboring 17 somatic mutations in 79 samples, a prevalence of 21.5%. Functional evaluation of six PTPRD mutations show enhanced anchorage-dependent and anchorage-independent growth. Interestingly, melanoma cells expressing mutant PTPRD are significantly more migratory than cells expressing wild-type PTPRD or vector alone, indicating a novel gain-of-function associated with mutant PTPRD. To understand the molecular mechanism of PTPRD, we searched for its binding partners by converting the active PTPRD enzyme into a ‘‘substrate trap’’ form. Using mass spectrometry and co-immunoprecipitation, we report desmoplakin, a desmosomal protein that is implicated in cell-cell adhesion, as a novel PTPRD substrate. Further analysis showed reduced phosphatase activity of mutant PTPRD against desmoplakin. Thus our study has established a novel link between PTPRD and desmoplakin and identified a phosphatase implicated in desmosome formation, which is disrupted in melanoma. As both Met and EGFR signaling have been shown to be involved in desmoplakin phosphorylation and their respective inhibitors, SU11274 and Gefinitib reduce its phosphorylation; melanoma cells harboring PTPRD mutations may be selectively sensitive to these two inhibitors. Moreover, because PTPRD is also mutated in glioblastomas and adenocarcinoma of the colon and lung, our data might be applicable to a number of human cancers. Note: This abstract was not presented at the meeting. Citation Format: Vijay Walia, Todd Prickett, Jung-Sik Kim, Jared J. Gartner, Jimmy C. Lin, Steven A. Rosenberg, Randolph C. Elble, David A. Solomon, Todd Waldman, Yardena Samuels. Mutational and functional analysis of the tumor suppressor PTPRD in human melanoma. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr LB-065. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-LB-065

E-cadherin and Src associate with extradesmosomal Dsg3 and modulate desmosome assembly and adhesion.

Desmosomes provide strong intercellular cohesion essential for the integrity of cells and tissues exposed to continuous mechanical stress. For desmosome assembly, constitutively synthesized desmosomal cadherins translocate to the cell-cell border, cluster and mature in the presence of Ca(2+) to stable cell contacts. As adherens junctions precede the formation of desmosomes, we investigated in this study the relationship between the classical cadherin E-cadherin and the desmosomal cadherin Desmoglein 3 (Dsg3), the latter of which is indispensable for cell-cell adhesion in keratinocytes. By using autoantibodies from patients with the blistering skin disease pemphigus vulgaris (PV), we showed in loss of function studies that E-cadherin compensates for effects of desmosomal disassembly. Overexpression of E-cadherin reduced the loss of cell cohesion induced by PV autoantibodies and attenuated activation of p38 MAPK. Silencing of E-cadherin abolished the localization of Dsg3 at the membrane and resulted in a shift of Dsg3 from the cytoskeletal to the non-cytoskeletal protein pool which conforms to the notion that E-cadherin regulates desmosome assembly. Mechanistically, we identified a complex consisting of extradesmosomal Dsg3, E-cadherin, β-catenin and Src and that the stability of this complex is regulated by Src. Moreover, Dsg3 and E-cadherin are phosphorylated on tyrosine residues in a Src-dependent manner and Src activity is required for recruiting Dsg3 to the cytoskeletal pool as well as for desmosome maturation towards a Ca(2+)-insensitive state. Our data provide new insights into the role of E-cadherin and the contribution of Src signaling for formation and maintenance of desmosomal junctions.

Serum-induced keratinization processes in an immortalized human meibomian gland epithelial cell line.

PurposeThe aim of this study was to evaluate a human meibomian gland epithelial cell line (HMGEC) as a model for meibomian gland (patho)physiology in vitro.MethodsHMGEC were cultured in the absence or presence of serum. Sudan III lipid staining, ultrastructural analysis and lipidomic analyses were performed. Impedance sensing, desmoplakin 1/2 mRNA and cytokeratin (CK) 1, 5, 6, 14 levels were evaluated. Serum containing medium supplemented with higher serum, glucose, an omega-3 lipid cocktail, eicosapentaenoic acid or sebomed medium were investigated for lipid accumulation and ultrastructural morphology.ResultsLipid droplet accumulation in HMGEC was induced by serum containing media after 1 day, but decreased over time. Cultivation in serum induced desmosome and cytokeratin filament formation. Desmoplakin 1/2 gene levels were significantly upregulated after 1d of serum treatment. Furthermore, the normalized impedance increased significantly. Lipidome analysis revealed high levels of phospholipids (over 50%), but very low levels of wax ester and cholesteryl esters (under 1%). Stimulation with eicosapentaenoic acid increased lipid accumulation after one day.ConclusionSerum treatment of HMGEC caused lipid droplet formation to some extent but also induced keratinization. The cells did not produce typical meibum lipids under these growth conditions. HMGEC are well suited to study (hyper)keratinization processes of meibomian gland epithelial cells in vitro.

Desmocollin-2 alone forms functional desmosomal plaques, with the plaque formation requiring the juxtamembrane region and plakophilins.

The role of the juxtamembrane region of the desmocollin-2 cytoplasmic domain in desmosome formation was investigated by using gene knockout and reconstitution experiments. When a deletion construct of the desmocollin-2 juxtamembrane region was expressed in HaCaT cells, the mutant protein became localized linearly at the cell-cell boundary, suggesting the involvement of this region in desmosomal plaque formation. Then, desmocollin-2 and desmoglein-2 genes of epithelial DLD-1 cells were ablated by using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. The resultant knockout cells did not form desmosomes, but re-expression of desmocollin-2 in the cells formed desmosomal plaques in the absence of desmoglein-2 and the transfectants showed significant cell adhesion activity. Intriguingly, expression of desmocollin-2 lacking its juxtamembrane region did not form the plaques. The results of an immunoprecipitation and GST-fusion protein pull-down assay suggested the binding of plakophilin-2 and -3 to the region. Ablation of plakophilin-2 and -3 genes resulted in disruption of the plaque-like accumulation and linear localization of desmocollin-2 at intercellular contact sites. These results suggest that the juxtamembrane region of desmocollin-2 and plakophilins are involved in the desmosomal plaque formation, possibly through the interaction between this region and plakophilins.

Structural and biochemical changes underlying a keratoderma-like phenotype in mice lacking suprabasal AP1 transcription factor function.

Epidermal keratinocyte differentiation on the body surface is a carefully choreographed process that leads to assembly of a barrier that is essential for life. Perturbation of keratinocyte differentiation leads to disease. Activator protein 1 (AP1) transcription factors are key controllers of this process. We have shown that inhibiting AP1 transcription factor activity in the suprabasal murine epidermis, by expression of dominant-negative c-jun (TAM67), produces a phenotype type that resembles human keratoderma. However, little is understood regarding the structural and molecular changes that drive this phenotype. In the present study we show that TAM67-positive epidermis displays altered cornified envelope, filaggrin-type keratohyalin granule, keratin filament, desmosome formation and lamellar body secretion leading to reduced barrier integrity. To understand the molecular changes underlying this process, we performed proteomic and RNA array analysis. Proteomic study of the corneocyte cross-linked proteome reveals a reduction in incorporation of cutaneous keratins, filaggrin, filaggrin2, late cornified envelope precursor proteins, hair keratins and hair keratin-associated proteins. This is coupled with increased incorporation of desmosome linker, small proline-rich, S100, transglutaminase and inflammation-associated proteins. Incorporation of most cutaneous keratins (Krt1, Krt5 and Krt10) is reduced, but incorporation of hyperproliferation-associated epidermal keratins (Krt6a, Krt6b and Krt16) is increased. RNA array analysis reveals reduced expression of mRNA encoding differentiation-associated cutaneous keratins, hair keratins and associated proteins, late cornified envelope precursors and filaggrin-related proteins; and increased expression of mRNA encoding small proline-rich proteins, protease inhibitors (serpins), S100 proteins, defensins and hyperproliferation-associated keratins. These findings suggest that AP1 factor inactivation in the suprabasal epidermal layers reduces expression of AP1 factor-responsive genes expressed in late differentiation and is associated with a compensatory increase in expression of early differentiation genes.

Aberrant DNA hypermethylation reduces the expression of the desmosome-related molecule periplakin in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.

Periplakin (PPL), a member of the plakin family of proteins that localizes to desmosomes and intermediate filaments, is downregulated in human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Little is known, however, about the molecular mechanism underlying the regulation of PPL expression and the contribution of PPL loss to the malignant property of the cancer is unclear. We demonstrated that PPL mRNA expression was significantly reduced in ESCC tissues compared with that in normal tissues. Therefore, we hypothesized that CpG hypermethylation is the cause of the downregulation of PPL. Bisulfite-pyrosequencing of 17 cases demonstrated that the frequency of PPL methylation was higher in ESCC tissues than in normal tissues. When human ESCC cell lines were treated with 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (5-aza-dC), a DNA-methyltransferase inhibitor, PPL transcription was induced. Human KYSE270 ESCC cells do not stratify under ordinary culture conditions and rarely produce desmosomes; however, the forced expression of PPL promoted cell stratification. PPL induction also promoted adhesion to extracellular matrix but delayed cell migration. The abundance of desmosome-like structures was greatly increased in PPL transfectant as determined by transmission electron microscopy. Very low expression of another desmosome protein EVPL in ESCC, even in PPL transfectant, also supported the significant role of PPL in desmosome formation and cell stratification. Our results first indicate that the downregulation of PPL mediated by DNA hypermethylation, which may play an important role in the loss of ESCC stratification and likely in metastatic phenotype.

Grhl1 deficiency affects inner ear development in zebrafish.

Many genes that have been found to contribute to deafness are currently being studied. Some 87 non-syndromic hereditary deafness genes have been confirmed. Proteins associated with cochlear development have also been confirmed. Some of these proteins have important relationships with gap junctions (GJ) and tight junctions (TJ). However, the desmosome junction has received little attention due to controversy over whether it could be detected in the inner ear. GRHL1 is a conserved transcriptional regulator, and it is key to vertebrate desmosome formation. GRHL2 has been confirmed as a deafness gene at the DFNA28 locus. These two homologous proteins have similar sequences and functions. Here, a grhl1 down-regulated zebrafish model exhibited inner ear developmental malformations, including missing otoliths, disordered and abnormal numbers of hair cells in the inner ear and lateral line, and sound insensitivity. The mutant zebrafish swam in circles. Hair cell apoptosis was evident. Under electron microscopy, desmosomes in the otic sensory epithelium were found to be damaged. These defects were partially rescued by treatment with either GRHL1 or its target gene, DSG1. Collectively, these data are the first to indicate that grhl1 is important to the developing inner ear epithelia in zebrafish and that it acts via desmosome junction regulation.

Exome Sequencing Identifies Pxdn and DSP As Recurrently Mutated Genes in Infant ALL Patients Carrying a MLL-AF4 Translocation

Background and purpose: Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in infants (<1 year of age) carrying MLL translocations represent a highly aggressive subtype of leukemia with an exceedingly poor prognosis. Although MLL rearrangements have been considered to be causative for this type of leukemia, recent studies using mouse models suggest that the expression of chimeric MLL fusion genes alone may not be sufficient to induce leukemia. In an attempt to identify additional mutations that synergize with MLLfusion genes in driving leukemogenesis, we performed exome-sequencing in primary infant ALL patient samples (n=13) carrying the t(4;11)-translocation, giving rise to the MLL-AF4 fusion protein.Materials and Methods: Bone marrow or peripheral blood samples from untreated infants diagnosed with t(4;11)+ ALL were collected at our laboratory as part of the international collaborative INTERFANT treatment protocols. Genomic DNA was extracted from ~5×106leukemic cells. Exome capture has been performed using the Sure Select Human All Exon v2 kit (Agilent Technologies). The samples were prepped for sequencing according to the TruSeq v3 protocol (Illumina) prior to sequencing on the Hiseq2000 with a v3 flowcell for 100bp = 7bp index (Illumina). The reads have been aligned against the human reference genome build 19 (hg19) using a BWA and NARWHAL based pipeline. Sequential filtering selected for single nucleotide variations (SNVs) in canonical splice sites, insertions/deletions (indels) providing frameshifts, indels involving regions conserved between species (phyloP >3), nonsense mutations and nonsynonymous missense mutations involving regions conserved between species. All known annotated single nucleotide polymorphisms according to dbSNP build 138 and an in-house database of 1354 sequenced exomes were excluded. Recurrent mutations were validated by Sanger sequencing on an extended infant ALL patient cohort (n=122).Results: The sequenced exomes had an average coverage depth of 102.5 reads per region or 109 per base. Exome sequencing revealed that, after filtering, t(4;11)+ infant ALL patients on average carried 71 variants (range 58-98, including rare germline variants and somatic mutations). To identify recurrent mutations we selected 23 genes in which two or more patients carried a mutation for further validation by Sanger sequencing. Although all 23 genes were successfully validated, no additional patients carrying these mutations were found. However, recurrent secondary mutations within the same functional region as the initial mutations were found in two genes: PXDN and DSP. The average incidences of the PXDN and DSP mutations amongst MLL-rearranged infant ALL patients were 32% and 20%, respectively. Interestingly, MLL-rearranged infant ALL patients carrying a PXDN mutation had a significantly (p=0.013) better prognosis compared with patients not carrying a PXDNmutation, with mean EFS rates of 6.4 vs. 3.2 years, respectively. Both gene products are involved in intracellular interactions, desmosome formation, extracellular matrix consolidation and phagocytosis and no prior associations with ALL have been made before.Conclusion: We identified 23 genes with two or more mutations in our initial exome sequencing cohort. None of these mutations were found in additional patients in our validation cohort. Despite an average of 71 variations per patient, no recurrent mutations were identified and our study provides evidence supporting previous observations that infant ALL has one of the lowest mutation rates observed in human cancer. However, we identified additional mutations within the same functional region as the initial mutation in DSP and PXDN. Interestingly, PXDN mutations show an association with a favorable prognosis in MLL-R patients. DisclosuresNo relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

A novel Nrf2-miR-29-desmocollin-2 axis regulates desmosome function in keratinocytes.

The Nrf2 transcription factor controls the expression of genes involved in the antioxidant defense system. Here, we identified Nrf2 as a novel regulator of desmosomes in the epidermis through the regulation of microRNAs. On Nrf2 activation, expression of miR-29a and miR-29b increases in cultured human keratinocytes and in mouse epidermis. Chromatin immunoprecipitation identified the Mir29ab1 and Mir29b2c genes as direct Nrf2 targets in keratinocytes. While binding of Nrf2 to the Mir29ab1 gene activates expression of miR-29a and -b, the Mir29b2c gene is silenced by DNA methylation. We identified desmocollin-2 (Dsc2) as a major target of Nrf2-induced miR-29s. This is functionally important, since Nrf2 activation in keratinocytes of transgenic mice causes structural alterations of epidermal desmosomes. Furthermore, the overexpression of miR-29a/b or knockdown of Dsc2 impairs the formation of hyper-adhesive desmosomes in keratinocytes, whereas Dsc2 overexpression has the opposite effect. These results demonstrate that a novel Nrf2-miR-29-Dsc2 axis controls desmosome function and cutaneous homeostasis.

Cellular level robotic surgery: Nanodissection of intermediate filaments in live keratinocytes

We present the nanosurgery on the cytoskeleton of live cells using AFM based nanorobotics to achieve adhesiolysis and mimic the effect of pathophysiological modulation of intercellular adhesion. Nanosurgery successfully severs the intermediate filament bundles and disrupts cell–cell adhesion similar to the desmosomal protein disassembly in autoimmune disease, or the cationic modulation of desmosome formation. Our nanomechanical analysis revealed that adhesion loss results in a decrease in cellular stiffness in both cases of biochemical modulation of the desmosome junctions and mechanical disruption of intercellular adhesion, supporting the notion that intercellular adhesion through intermediate filaments anchors the cell structure as focal adhesion does and that intermediate filaments are integral components in cell mechanical integrity. The surgical process could potentially help reveal the mechanism of autoimmune pathology-induced cell–cell adhesion loss as well as its related pathways that lead to cell apoptosis. From the Clinical EditorThis team of authors performed nanosurgery on the cytoskeleton of live cells using AFM based nanorobotics to achieve adhesiolysis, and mimic the effect of pathophysiological modulation of intercellular adhesions. This method could potentially help reveal the mechanism of autoimmune pathology-induced cell–cell adhesion loss as well as its related pathways that lead to cell apoptosis.

Cadherin cytoplasmic domains inhibit the cell surface localization of endogenous E-cadherin, blocking desmosome and tight junction formation and inducing cell dissociation.

The downregulation of E-cadherin function has fundamental consequences with respect to cancer progression, and occurs as part of the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). In this study, we show that the expression of the Discosoma sp. red fluorescent protein (DsRed)-tagged cadherin cytoplasmic domain in cells inhibited the cell surface localization of endogenous E-cadherin, leading to morphological changes, the inhibition of junctional assembly and cell dissociation. These changes were associated with increased cell migration, but were not accompanied by the down-regulation of epithelial markers and up-regulation of mesenchymal markers. Thus, these changes cannot be classified as EMT. The cadherin cytoplasmic domain interacted with β-catenin or plakoglobin, reducing the levels of β-catenin or plakoglobin associated with E-cadherin, and raising the possibility that β-catenin and plakoglobin sequestration by these constructs induced E-cadherin intracellular localization. Accordingly, a cytoplasmic domain construct bearing mutations that weakened the interactions with β-catenin or plakoglobin did not impair junction formation and adhesion, indicating that the interaction with β-catenin or plakoglobin was essential to the potential of the constructs. E-cadherin–α-catenin chimeras that did not require β-catenin or plakoglobin for their cell surface transport restored cell–cell adhesion and junction formation.

SERCA2 Dysfunction in Darier Disease Causes Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Impaired Cell-to-Cell Adhesion Strength: Rescue by Miglustat

Darier disease (DD) is a severe dominant genetic skin disorder characterized by the loss of cell-to-cell adhesion and abnormal keratinization. The defective gene, ATP2A2, encodes sarco/endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ -ATPase isoform 2 (SERCA2), a Ca2+ -ATPase pump of the ER. Here we show that Darier keratinocytes (DKs) display biochemical and morphological hallmarks of constitutive ER stress with increased sensitivity to ER stressors. Desmosome and adherens junctions (AJs) displayed features of immature adhesion complexes: expression of desmosomal cadherins (desmoglein 3 (Dsg3) and desmocollin 3 (Dsc3)) and desmoplakin was impaired at the plasma membrane, as well as E-cadherin, β-, α-, and p120-catenin staining. Dsg3, Dsc3, and E-cadherin showed perinuclear staining and co-immunostaining with ER markers, indicative of ER retention. Consistent with these abnormalities, intercellular adhesion strength was reduced as shown by a dispase mechanical dissociation assay. Exposure of normal keratinocytes to the SERCA2 inhibitor thapsigargin recapitulated these abnormalities, supporting the role of loss of SERCA2 function in impaired desmosome and AJ formation. Remarkably, treatment of DKs with the orphan drug Miglustat, a pharmacological chaperone, restored mature AJ and desmosome formation, and improved adhesion strength. These results point to an important contribution of ER stress in DD pathogenesis and provide the basis for future clinical evaluation of Miglustat in Darier patients.

Bis-aryloxadiazoles as effective activators of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor

Bis-aryloxadiazoles are common scaffolds in medicinal chemistry due to their wide range of biological activities. Previously, we identified a 1,2,4-bis-aryloxadiazole that blocks mammary branching morphogenesis through activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). In addition to defects in mammary differentiation, AHR stimulation induces toxicity in many other tissues. We performed a structure activity relationship (SAR) study of 1,2,4-bis-aryloxadiazole to determine which moieties of the molecule are critical for AHR activation. We validated our results with a functional biological assay, using desmosome formation during mammary morphogenesis to indicate AHR activity. These findings will aid the design of oxadiazole derivative therapeutics with reduced off-target toxicity profiles.

14-3-3γ meditated transport of plakoglobin to the cell border is required for the initiation of desmosome assembly in vitro and in vivo

The regulation of cell-cell adhesion is important for the processes of tissue formation and morphogenesis. Here, we report that loss of 14-3-3γ leads to a decrease in cell-cell adhesion and a defect in the transport of plakoglobin and other desmosomal proteins to the cell border in HCT116 cells and cells of the mouse testis. 14-3-3γ binds to plakoglobin in a PKCμ-dependent fashion, resulting in microtubule-dependent transport of plakoglobin to cell borders. Transport of plakoglobin to the border is dependent on the KIF5B-KLC1 complex. Knockdown of KIF5B in HCT116 cells, or in the mouse testis, results in a phenotype similar to that observed upon 14-3-3γ knockdown. Our results suggest that loss of 14-3-3γ leads to decreased desmosome formation and a decrease in cell-cell adhesion in vitro, and in the mouse testis in vivo, leading to defects in testis organization and spermatogenesis.

Characterizing the Interaction of Desmosomal Cadherins at Single Molecule Level

Desmosomes are cell-cell adhesion complexes that are present in tissues that resist mechanical stress. They are mainly composed of two adhesive proteins, which are members of the cadherin superfamily of cell adhesion proteins, desmocollin (Dsc) and desmoglein (Dsg). However, the role of these proteins in desmosomal adhesion is unclear. Here, we use the single molecule force spectroscopy with an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM-FS) to characterize the interactions of type-2 isoforms of desmocollin (Dsc2) and desmoglein (Dsg2). We show that Dsc2 forms Ca2+ dependent homophilic bonds by swapping a conserved Tryptophan (Trp) residue between opposing binding partners; mutating this Trp inhibits Ca2+ dependent homophilic binding. In contrast, Dsg2 forms Ca2+ independent heterophilic bonds with Dsc2 via a mechanism that does not involve Trp strand-swapping.Previous studies suggest that desmosome formation requires the presence of classical cadherins at the site of desmosome assembly. This suggests a cross-talk between desmosomal and classical cadherins at cell-adhesion contacts. We therefore used AFM-FS to test if Dsc2 and Dsg2 interact with E-cadherin, a classical cadherin present in the epithelium. Our data shows that while Dsc2 does not bind to E-cadherin in the presence of Ca2+, Dsg2 forms Ca2+ independent complexes with E-cadherin. Using cadherin mutants we show that the interactions between Dsg2 and E-cadherin occur via a previously uncharacterized binding interface that does not involve either Trp strand-swapping or X-dimer formation (two well established classical cadherin binding mechanisms).

Squamous cell carcinoma of the soft palate associated with autoantibodies to desmoglein 1 and 3

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Bacillus anthracis Lethal Toxin Reduces Human Alveolar Epithelial Barrier Function

The lung is the site of entry for Bacillus anthracis in inhalation anthrax, the deadliest form of the disease. Bacillus anthracis produces virulence toxins required for disease. Alveolar macrophages were considered the primary target of the Bacillus anthracis virulence factor lethal toxin because lethal toxin inhibits mouse macrophages through cleavage of MEK signaling pathway components, but we have reported that human alveolar macrophages are not a target of lethal toxin. Our current results suggest that, unlike human alveolar macrophages, the cells lining the respiratory units of the lung, alveolar epithelial cells, are a target of lethal toxin in humans. Alveolar epithelial cells expressed lethal toxin receptor protein, bound the protective antigen component of lethal toxin, and were subject to lethal-toxin-induced cleavage of multiple MEKs. These findings suggest that human alveolar epithelial cells are a target of Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin. Further, no reduction in alveolar epithelial cell viability was observed, but lethal toxin caused actin rearrangement and impaired desmosome formation, consistent with impaired barrier function as well as reduced surfactant production. Therefore, by compromising epithelial barrier function, lethal toxin may play a role in the pathogenesis of inhalation anthrax by facilitating the dissemination of Bacillus anthracis from the lung in early disease and promoting edema in late stages of the illness.

Estrogens promote cell–cell adhesion of normal and malignant mammary cells through increased desmosome formation

The association of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) expression with differentiated breast tumors presenting a lower metastasis risk could be explained by the estrogen modulation of cell adhesion, motility and invasiveness. Since desmosomes play a crucial role in cell–cell adhesion and may interfere in tumor progression, we studied their regulation by estrogens in human breast cancer and normal mammary cells. Estrogens increased the formation of desmosomes in normal and malignant cells. Furthermore, four desmosomal proteins (desmocollin, γ-catenin, plakophilin and desmoplakin) appeared significantly up-regulated by estrogens in three ERα-expressing cancer cell lines and this effect was reversed by a pure antiestrogen. Finally, silencing of ERα or desmoplakin expression by specific siRNA revealed that estrogen-modulated desmosomal proteins are essential for the estrogenic control of intercellular adhesion. This estrogen modulation of desmosome formation could contribute to the lower invasiveness of ERα-positive tumors and to the integrity of epithelial layers in estrogen target tissues.

E-cadherin is required for intestinal morphogenesis in the mouse

E-cadherin, the primary epithelial adherens junction protein, has been implicated as playing a critical role in nucleating formation of adherens junctions, tight junctions, and desmosomes. In addition to its role in maintaining structural tissue integrity, E-cadherin has also been suggested as an important modulator of cell signaling via interactions with its cytoplasmic binding partners, catenins, as well as with growth factor receptors. Therefore, we proposed that loss of E-cadherin from the developing mouse intestinal epithelium would disrupt intestinal epithelial morphogenesis and function. To test this hypothesis, we used a conditional knockout approach to eliminate E-cadherin specifically in the intestinal epithelium during embryonic development. We found that E-cadherin conditional knockout mice failed to survive, dying within the first 24 hours of birth. Examination of intestinal architecture at E18.5 demonstrated severe disruption to intestinal morphogenesis in animals lacking E-cadherin in the epithelium of the small intestine. We observed changes in epithelial cell shape as well as in the morphology of villi. Although junctional complexes were evident, junctions were abnormal, and barrier function was compromised in E-cadherin mutant intestine. We also identified changes in the epithelial cell populations present in E-cadherin conditional knockout animals. The number of proliferating cells was increased, whereas the number of enterocytes was decreased. Although Wnt/β-catenin target mRNAs were more abundant in mutants compared with controls, the amount of nuclear activated β-catenin protein was dramatically lower in mutants compared with controls. In summary, our data demonstrate that E-cadherin is essential for intestinal epithelial morphogenesis and homeostasis during embryonic development.

Calcium regulation of keratinocyte differentiation

Calcium is the major regulator of keratinocyte differentiation in vivo and in vitro. A calcium gradient within the epidermis promotes the sequential differentiation of keratinocytes as they traverse the different layers of the epidermis to form the permeability barrier of the stratum corneum. Calcium promotes differentiation by both outside–in and inside–out signaling. A number of signaling pathways involved with differentiation are regulated by calcium, including the formation of desmosomes, adherens junctions and tight junctions, which maintain cell–cell adhesion and play an important intracellular signaling role through their activation of various kinases and phospholipases that produce second messengers that regulate intracellular free calcium and PKC activity, critical for the differentiation process. The calcium receptor plays a central role by initiating the intracellular signaling events that drive differentiation in response to extracellular calcium. This review will discuss these mechanisms.