Building Design Research Articles

Understanding the Integration of Building Energy Modeling into the Building Design Process: Insights from Two Collaborative Construction Projects

This research investigates the integration of building energy modeling (BEM) within collaborative construction projects to inform design decisions for achieving high-energy performance goals. The study aims to understand current practices, benefits, and challenges associated with this integration. Using an ethnographic case study approach focused on two high-energy performance social housing projects with integrated project delivery and integrated design processes, data were collected through direct observations, document analysis, and interviews with project team members. Design process modeling was utilized to dissect current practices, followed by a hybrid inductive and deductive thematic analysis to find challenges related to energy performance design in collaborative projects. Findings from this research revealed that BEM experts often operate in isolation, with late integration of energy models into design decisions. Compliance-centric BEM usage and challenges related to interoperability of design and BEM tools further compound the issue of seamless collaboration. However, the study highlights that early collaboration among project stakeholders emerges as a pivotal factor in informed design decisions, bridging the gap between energy modeling and design. This research provides valuable insights for practitioners seeking to optimize BEM in their design process, and offers support to policymakers aiming to enhance the role of BEM in projects.

Pattern design for capacity building of promoters in climate-smart agriculture environment development

This study aimed to investigate the impact of agricultural environment, organizational, educational, economic, social, technical, cultural, and legal factors on the capacity building of extension experts in the development of climate-smart agriculture. The research is applied in terms of its objective and descriptive-survey in terms of its method. The statistical population of the research consisted of extension experts in three provinces, East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, and Ardabil (N=4256). A sample size of 354 was selected using the Cochran formula. The data collection tool was a questionnaire using a five-point Likert scale. The formal and content validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by a group of experts and using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) method before conducting the pilot study. The reliability of the research tool was evaluated by conducting a pilot study among 25 individuals outside the statistical population. In this research, SmartPLS software was used for data analysis. The results showed that infrastructural factors had the highest impact on climate-smart agriculture with 22%, followed by organizational factors with 21%, social factors with almost 17%, cultural factors with 16.5%, educational factors with 13%, legal factors with nearly 13%, technical factors with 11.4%, and finally, economic factors with just over 10%. Overall, the factors under study explain more than 68% of the variance in climate-smart agriculture (R2=0.687), indicating the impact of the aforementioned factors on the development of climate-smart agriculture. Also, the design of this model made the promoters, by identifying and increasing the potential and capacities of themselves, villagers and farmers, to be able to adapt themselves to climate change and drought, and by increasing resilience and adaptability, to have positive effects for the development of sustainable agriculture. Along with increasing the product, it will increase the income and reduce the costs for them.

A shape grammar-based design for modular buildings based on the Vitruvian triad: The case of Mächtig Kiosk K67

The kiosk K67 is a known example of mass-produced modular architecture designed in the 60s. Although these modules allow many design solutions, the designer Saša Mächtig did not guide the generation of such designs so that the final composition of elements could fit a specific design purpose. This study has two aims. The first is the development of a shape grammar for the kiosk K67, which enables a deep analysis and synthesis of this paradigmatic design. The study’s second aim is to combine the kiosk K67 shape grammar with design principles to guide the generation of design solutions. To do so, the Vitruvian triad dimensions – firmitas, utilitas and venustas – are combined with the developed kiosk K67 shape grammar to generate design solutions based on specific design briefs. The study identifies how each dimension of the triad can impact architecture and then correlates these impacts with the kiosk K67 shape rules. Finally, shape grammar and design alternatives are presented. Each Vitruvian dimension is taken with different priorities in the design alternatives to test the concept. Such an approach enables us not just to analyse the design of Mächtig but also to use the developed shape grammar in a pedagogical way to explore how balancing design principles and constraints impact design outcomes.

Seismic Response of Open Ground Story Reinforced Concrete Buildings, Considering with Soil-Structure Interaction

This study investigates the seismic behavior of open-ground story (OGS) reinforced concrete buildings with soil-structure interaction (SSI) using SAP2000. The study mainly focused on mid-rise (8-storey) and low-rise (4-storey) OGS buildings, incorporating different masonry infill materials such as brick, concrete blocks, and autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) blocks. Selected ground motions from the Bhuj, El Centro, and Chi-Chi earthquakes were utilized to simulate varying seismic intensities and frequency content. Critical parameters such as top-story displacement and inter-story drift are analyzed to assess the structural safety and serviceability of RC buildings. The results demonstrate that both OGS coupled with SSI and masonry infill type significantly affect the displacement and drift, with mid-rise buildings showing more pronounced impacts. Furthermore, ground motion characteristics are critical in producing different response patterns. The study highlights the importance of considering SSI, infill materials, and ground motion characteristics in the design of OGS buildings to enhance earthquake resilience and reduce seismic damage.

Evaluation of Ventilation Strategies to Mitigate Airborne Infection Risk in a Dental School: A Three-Dimensional CFD Analysis of Airflow Patterns and Ventilation Efficiency

Infection prevention and control is a crucial element in providing a safe environment for dental clinics and reducing airborne infections risks during dental procedures. In response to the prevailing COVID-19 situations, the clinical space in the dental school was operated with ventilation strategies, increasing air exchanges and incorporating supply and return air arrangement based on seating positions. This study evaluated airflow patterns to examine personal exposure to airborne infection risk under these strategies. The three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics technique using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis was performed in 50 multi-units of the dental school of the university in Bangkok, Thailand. The results revealed substantial improvements in indoor ventilation. Improvement of airflow patterns and directions surpassed conventional design of the pre-existing building’s system and helped reduce airborne contaminant concentrations. The further discussion of occupant-based design in dental schools is needed to optimize ventilation systems and engineering controls concerning indoor airborne infections.

Driving the zero-carbon construction strategy: key barriers and enablers

PurposeIn the fast-changing field of zero-carbon construction there is a gap in understanding how zero-carbon construction strategies are experienced in practice. This paper aims to identify the key barriers and enablers to driving a zero-carbon construction strategy by industry, policymakers and educators.Design/methodology/approachThe research was conducted in two stages. The first stage used a literature review to determine thematic areas from which to develop discussion points for the second stage of the research, which gathered insights into key barriers and enablers to driving a zero-carbon construction strategy from analysing recorded discussion with industry, policymakers and educators. This study adopts a qualitative research methodological design underpinned by dialectical approach of enquiries involving 31 participants. The philosophical standpoint aligns with a constructivist participatory worldview based on multiple stakeholder perspectives. Data involving virtual and face-to-face engagement held simultaneously in Australia and India were transcribed, coded and synthesised to identify the barriers and enablers to driving zero-carbon construction strategy.FindingsThe paper identified key barriers and enablers driving zero-carbon construction strategy. Barriers included limited awareness of industry dynamics; fixed mental models of professional practice; complexities in identifying appropriate skillsets; difficulties associated with reviewing education and training models and integrating sustainable strategies at early stages of projects. Enablers included: fostering education reform and supporting frameworks and procurement strategies for developers and clients; implementing efficient building designs, construction and operationalisation of zero-carbon buildings and; utilising an industry-led integrated approach. A framework was developed to provide an illustrative view of the linkage between the research projects’ focus areas and emergent themes.Originality/valueThe paper provides zero-carbon action priorities for four significant stakeholder groups in the build environment, developers, building occupiers, educators and government. As the priorities are derived in the research from examination of current literature and analysis of stakeholder viewpoints, this paper presents a unique, realistic and timely identification of barriers and key enablers driving zero-carbon construction strategies. Methodology applied in terms of data collection involved a public discourse and a unique technology-driven collaborative approach where participants simultaneously contributed across countries and time zones in a synchronous manner across key topics related to driving the zero-carbon construction strategy.

FoCa – Free of Carbon Architecture –an educational and informational online platform supporting the decarbonization of the construction sector in Poland and Turkey

Wrocław University of Science and Technology, in consortium with the Polish Association of Ecological Buildings (PLGBC), the Institute of Building Technology (ITB) and research and scientific units from Turkey, started the international project FoCA – Free of Carbon Architecture. Its aim is to create a publicly available tool – an interactive internet platform providing information on the environmental properties of construction materials and products available in Poland and Turkey. The platform allows users to compare and evaluate the environmental impact of selected building materials. As part of the platform's development, information is collected about building materials or products available on local markets, in the form of data describing their selected environmental impacts (GWPfossil, GWPbiogenic, GWPtotal, TRPE, TNRPE, WD). The platform allows to compare building materials and perform analyzes for conceptual building designs. In addition, producers of building materials can also benefit from the project because they will receive information about the environmental properties of some of their products. The platform will be available in the second half of 2024.

Effects of Window Green View Index on Stress Recovery of College Students from Psychological and Physiological Aspects

Students often experience high levels of daily academic pressure, spending extended periods within indoor classroom environments. Windows, as a medium of proximity to nature, play an important role in relieving stress. However, the broader implications of the Window Green View Index (WGVI) on individual well-being remain underexplored. This study aims to assess the effects of WGVI on stress recovery in college students by utilizing virtual reality technology to create five classroom environments with varying WGVI levels: 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. Twenty-four participants were subjected to the Trier Social Stress Test before engaging with the different WGVI scenarios for stress recovery. Both subjective assessments and objective physiological indicators were evaluated. Results indicated that participants exhibited the lowest Profile of Mood States (POMS) score (−4.50) and significantly improved systolic blood pressure recovery at a 25% WGVI level. The examination of EEG data revealed that the O2 channel in the occipital region exhibited the highest level of activity in the alpha frequency range during the experiment. Additionally, a significant association was observed between the EEG measurements and the subjective rating of stress. This study underscores the significance of incorporating WGVI into the design and planning of college buildings to promote mental health and well-being among students.

The role of the electricity grid in operation-induced greenhouse gas emissions by a residential building: A multi-year retrospective simulation study

In view of the growing shares of renewables in the electricity grid in combination with the electrification of hvac (heating, ventilation, air conditioning) systems in residential buildings, the grid intensity (in terms of carbon dioxide emissions per unit of electric energy) becomes increasingly sensitive to weather conditions, and synchronicity between weather and the grid becomes a more critical aspect in building performance assessment. Using building performance simulation techniques to seek robust building designs requires awareness about the uncertainties in circumstantial factors that affect performance. This 2016 – 2022 retrospective study highlights the effects of using low or high temporal resolution grid emissions intensity data on projected operation-induced carbon dioxide emissions for a terraced dwelling in the Netherlands. Building fabric quality, the occupant profile, and systems configurations (i.e., hvac and photovoltaics) are varied to investigate the effects of the applied grid model resolution. This study shows that ignoring high-resolution grid intensity data is getting increasingly problematic; applying low resolution (annual) instead of high-resolution (15-minute) grid intensity data leads to an increasingly unjustified optimistic assessment both for net and gross emissions (either or not allowing for carbon displacement by feeding locally generated electricity into the grid).

A data-driven framework for occupancy optimisation strategies towards energy demand reduction in non-domestic buildings

Proactive strategies for data-driven operational schedules based on monitored occupancy patters can enable energy demand reduction and optimal resource utilisation. A replicable framework that enables strategic closure of specific thermal zones is introduced and design and operational considerations are discussed. The potential of the framework is illustrated through a case study building, where up to 6% annual energy savings were estimated, highlighting the effectiveness of zone closures. Further findings indicated that total energy savings from the simultaneous closure of multiple zones were marginally larger compared to savings from closing off zones individually, depending on zone capacity and use. Therefore, balanced considerations should take place prior to selecting which zones to close off, also taking into account user acceptability, capacity of systems and controls as well as the internal layout of the building. The research enhances the understanding of the relationship between occupancy and energy demand, while offering recommendations for more energy efficient and sustainable building design and operations that require minimal capital cost. Practical Application This paper provides design and operational considerations based on a robust and replicable framework for energy savings by optimising operational building schedules based on monitored occupancy patterns. This allows a proactive implementation of data-driven strategies that maximise resource utilisation, such as closure of specific zones during periods of low occupancy, without requiring any physical intervention. The findings on a case study building demonstrate that annual energy savings can be achieved, underscoring the potential for substantial cost reductions and improved energy efficiency. Applications can also extend to optimising energy demand for energy flexibility.

A cultural exposition model for interpreting architectural heritage: A study on Pingyao historical city

Architectural heritage, encompassing both its material and immaterial aspects, serves as a vital lens for understanding the historical, social, and esthetic values embedded in a society. As a reflection of cultural evolution, it offers insight into the architectural technologies, social structures, and collective memories of specific historical periods. This article investigates the architectural history of Pingyao historical city by employing theoretical perspectives that integrate material, social, and spiritual dimensions. The study demonstrates how the philosophy and cultural values of ancient Chinese society are reflected in the spatial and architectural forms of Pingyao. The material dimension considers how principles such as Feng Shui, numerology, and color symbolism shaped the city’s general layout and building designs. The social attribute addresses the influence of Confucianism on spatial organization, the use of culturally significant architectural elements, and the function of key structures in fostering social unity among the population. The spiritual aspect explores concepts of Eastern origin, such as Yin and Yang, the Five Elements theory, and the “Unity of Heaven and Humanity,” as these are incorporated into the city’s external architecture. Furthermore, it examines the influence of Buddhism and Daoism on Pyingyao’s architectural features. This comprehensive analysis reveals that Pingyao is far more than a collection of historic buildings; it is an intricate cultural artifact, offering a unique perspective on earlier stages of Chinese thought and society. Therefore, the preservation and study of Pingyao’s architecture offer a valuable opportunity to deepen our understanding of China’s architectural history.

Dynamic Analysis of a 600-m-High Supertall Building Subjected to Long-Period Ground Motions, Ordinary Ground Motions and a Super Typhoon: A Comparative Study

Long-period ground motions pose potential risks to the safety and serviceability of supertall buildings, which was not paid sufficient attention in the past of structural seismic design. To address this issue, the comparative study presented in this paper systematically investigates the dynamic responses of a 600-m-high supertall building subjected to natural hazards including long-period ground motions, ordinary ground motions and a super typhoon with the same return periods of 50 years. The seismic responses and wind-induced responses of the supertall building are obtained based on the building’s finite element model under earthquake excitation records and structural health monitoring system installed in the skyscraper, respectively. The long-period ground motions cause larger dynamic responses of the supertall building than those resulted by the ordinary ground motions or the super typhoon. This combined study of numerical analysis and field measurement provides valuable insights into the dynamic responses of a supertall building under different natural hazards, especially the long-period ground motions. The findings are expected to be of interest and practical use to the design of supertall buildings.

Comparisons of experimentally and numerically determined statistics for predicting low-occurrence wind speeds around a 1:1:2 block model

Accurate prediction of low-occurrence wind speeds around urban structures is crucial for safe building design. Although Large-eddy simulation (LES) is commonly used as a high-fidelity model as compared with the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) simulations, the present validation process relies on the comparison of fundamental statistics of the mean and standard deviations. The discrepancies in LESs and wind-tunnel experiments (WTEs) are unclear in terms of physical quantities characterizing the unsteadiness of the simulated turbulent flow such as probability density and power spectral densities, and low-occurrence winds speeds. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of LES in predicting unsteady wind behavior around a 1:1:2 block model. The study identifies prominent differences to improve the accuracy of unsteady numerical simulations especially for the purpose of predicting low-occurrence wind speeds. Various advection schemes in LESs were investigated, including first-order upwind, second-order linear, and dynamic interpolation schemes. The results show significant discrepancies, particularly in higher-order statistics and low-occurrence wind speeds, with WTE consistently exhibiting higher energy levels across all frequencies. These findings highlight the need to refine advection schemes to enhance their predictive accuracy. LESs with minimal numerical errors from discretization schemes can substantially improve urban wind assessments and contribute to the design of safer structures.

Building material reuse: An optimization framework for sourcing new and reclaimed building materials

The process of sourcing Reclaimed Construction Materials (RCMs) is predominantly manual and hindered by the limited digital presence of RCMs. However, the advancing technological landscape provides an opportunity to create a modular framework that can assess the value proposition of New Construction Materials (NCMs) and RCMs for a project before acquiring them. A field study in the Kitchener/Waterloo region inspired the development of a framework that has three underlying systems encompassing digital tools for data collection and analysis: (1) The Real Environment uses 3D scanners and a spreadsheet software, (2) The Model Environment uses Building Information Modeling (BIM) software and a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tool, and (3) The Core Engine uses an optimization program. Real-world data collected from RCM stores (The Habitat for Humanity) and NCM stores (The Home Depot) are used for a realistic demonstration of the framework. By practically applying the framework to source window and door components for a modeled multi-residential building design, an integrated selection of 35% RCMs and 65% NCMs was proposed for the building design. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis is also performed for validation. The framework may disrupt the ongoing building design practices that deem material reuse problematic by enabling flexible sourcing of used and new building materials. A modular and iterative framework for facilitating reuse is thus contributed.

Dynamic performance of a 5-story full-scale prestressed precast space frame structure under edge and corner column failure scenarios

Progressive collapse resistance is more critical for precast concrete than cast-in-place structures. Most existing studies utilized scaled-down and quasi-static pushdown tests on substructures with rigid constraints under key member failure scenarios. However, the connection details, the spatial action of floors and the constraint stiffness of the remaining structure significantly affect the structure's progressive collapse resistance. Full-scale structural testing is the most direct method to evaluate the progressive collapse resistance of a new prefabricated structure, although it is difficult and costly to load and measure. A 2 × 2 bay 5-story full-scale frame structure was constructed according to the minimum requirements of the Code for Seismic Design of Buildings to investigate the progressive collapse resistance of a new precast, prestressed, efficiently fabricated frame (PPEFF) system. The structure's dynamic performance was analyzed by removing the 4th-floor edge column and bottom corner column. The slider and double micro-friction surface configuration proved suitable for the rapid removal of large axial force columns in a full-scale progressive collapse experiment. The layout of the full-scale structural test and the structure's dynamic responses are described. The effect of the lateral constraint stiffness and the duration of column removal on the dynamic response of the test structure were analyzed using finite element analysis. The progressive collapse resistance mechanism of the PPEFF structure was discussed. The PPEFF system remained in an elastic state and exhibited good progressive collapse resistance.

THERMAL ADAPTIVE ARCHITECTURE: INTERPLAY BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND CLIMATE

The concept of architecture as a form of shelter, integral to both classical and contemporary discourse emphasizes the interplay between building structures and their climatic contexts. Vitruvius early observations underscore the importance of understanding how buildings act as barriers and responsive filters to their environments thereby shaping human activities. This paper explores the multi-faceted roles of buildings-functional, social, symbolic, artistic and their interconnections with thermal performance. While the adaptability of buildings to thermal conditions is well recognized, the impact of fluctuating economic factors such as energy prices, and the unpredictability of space usage add layers of complexity to thermal performance assessments. The research highlights the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application in achieving optimal thermal conditions. By examining the integration of precise thermal techniques into building design this study aims to bridge these gaps and propose strategies for designing climate-sensitive architecture. The focus is on achieving comfortable and healthy living environments while ensuring cost-effective resource use. This approach advocates for a refined understanding of thermal response and its application in the design-build-occupy process ultimately contributing to more efficient and adaptive building practices.

Study on prediction model of nitrogen emission in the production stage of residential building materials—A case study of Guangdong province

This study aims to reduce nitrogen emissions from residential buildings and establishes a prediction model for nitrogen emissions during the production of building materials. The calculation boundary, content, and method of nitrogen emission in the production stage of residential building materials are accurately analyzed. Based on the nitrogen emission data of 20 residential buildings in Guangdong, the composition and distribution characteristics of nitrogen emission in the production stage of building materials are analyzed. The coupling relationship between building design parameters and building materials’ nitrogen emissions is established using linear regression and ridge regression. 10 kinds of nitrogen emission prediction models based on the design parameters of residential buildings in the production stage of building materials were established and verified. The results show that the linear model M3, based on the number of floors above and below ground, the area width and depth, and the ridge regression model M5, based on the number of floors above and below ground, the area width and depth, and the total number of main functional rooms, have good fitting and prediction performance, respectively. The linear regression model M6, based on the number of floors above and below ground, the area width and depth, and the total number of rooms, has the best fitting and prediction performance. M3, M5, and M6 can accurately predict the nitrogen emission composition and distribution characteristics of building materials in residential building design and lay a foundation for future research on nitrogen emission evaluation and calculation methods and nitrogen emission reduction technology strategies.

Seismic in-plane behavior of composite masonry walls strengthened with cold rolled steel sheets

The seismic behavior of masonry walls strengthened by cold rolled steel sheets is numerically evaluated in this study using finite element modeling in ABAQUS. Cold-rolled steel sheets cover two sides of an unreinforced masonry wall and are bolted together to form a composite masonry wall. The behavior of the composite masonry walls is compared to that of the corresponding unreinforced masonry walls with various failure mechanisms. The finite element models of the unreinforced masonry walls are validated through experimental data in the literature. Then, cold-rolled steel sheet-strengthened walls are simulated, and variations in strength, ductility, and failure mode are investigated. A thorough sensitivity analysis is conducted on the effects of the aspect ratio, boundary condition, axial load ratio, steel sheet thickness, and connection bolt configuration on the in-plane strength and failure mode of the walls. It is observed that the steel sheets affect the local and global behavior of the masonry walls and change their failure modes. The use of through-thickness bolts to connect steel sheets to the masonry wall provides a composite action between steel sheets and the masonry wall against in-plane lateral loads. The cold-formed steel sheets not only resist a portion of the lateral load but also significantly increase the lateral strength of the masonry walls and the ductility of the whole wall system. Based on the analysis results it can be concluded that strengthening masonry walls with cold-rolled steel sheets is a promising technique for the seismic improvement of existing conventional masonry buildings and for the design of new masonry buildings.

Assessing the Impact of Vertical Greenery Systems on the Thermal Performance of Walls in Mediterranean Climates

This study investigates the impact of vertical greenery systems (VGSs) applied to several typical wall configurations on indoor thermal conditions in a building module situated in the Mediterranean climate of Catania, Italy. By means of dynamic simulations in TRNSYS vers.18, the research compares the thermal behavior of walls made of either hollow clay blocks (Poroton) or lava stone blocks against a lightweight wall setup already in place at the University of Catania. The primary focus is on evaluating the VGSs’ capability of reducing peak inner surface temperatures and moderating heat flux fluctuations entering the building. The findings indicate that adding an outer vertical greenery layer to heavyweight walls can decrease the peak inner surface temperature by up to 1.0 °C compared to the same bare wall. However, the greenery’s positive impact is less pronounced than in the case of the lightweight wall. This research underscores the potential of green facades in enhancing the indoor thermal environment in buildings in regions with climates like the Mediterranean one, providing valuable insights for sustainable building design and urban planning.

A fast quadrupole-based analytical model for solving transient heat transfer in ventilated double-skin walls and assessing their energy saving potential

This research proposes a fast and accurate method for modeling transient heat transfer in ventilated double-skin façades (VDFs) with forced ventilation to predict their energy-saving potential. Using the thermal quadrupole formalism, the method solves the VDF problem in the Laplace domain while considering the full transient nature of the heat transfer; the only approximation is in space. The solution involves obtaining a general transfer function that predicts heat transfer rates or air temperatures at ventilated cavity's exit. The quadrupole method is validated against computational fluid dynamic numerical simulations conducted under similar meteorological, design and boundary conditions. A very good agreement was found (less than 3 % average deviation) with a significant reduction in computation time (less than 3s against 6h for CFD calculations). The model is computationally efficient and can consider important factors such as the opacity of the walls, construction materials, and air cavity design parameters. Finally, the model allows the assessment of the energy-saving potential of VDFs under various scenarios compared to conventional systems, which helps contributing to more sustainable building design practices. The energy efficiency of a VDF configuration was compared against a conventional wall system. Energy savings of 8.4 and 5.2 % were obtained, in cold and hot climates respectively.