Design Of Protected Area Networks Research Articles

Proximity among protected area networks promotes functional connectivity for wintering waterfowl

The equilibrium theorem provided a fundamental framework for understanding species’ distributions and movement in fragmented ecosystems. Wetland-dependent avian species are model organisms to test insular predictions within protected area networks because their mobility allows surveillance of isolated patches without landscape barriers. We hypothesized size and isolation would influence functional connectivity of sanctuaries by GPS-marked wintering mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) within a mesocosm protected sanctuary area network. We evaluated functional connectivity and sanctuary use, measured by movements between sanctuaries, using a multistate modeling framework. Proximity drove connectivity, underscoring that patch isolation—not size—influenced connectivity, even for an avian species with no ascertainable landscape resistance or barriers. We also found that sanctuary use increased overwintering survival by reducing harvest mortality. Our test of equilibrium theory predictions demonstrated that isolation of protected sanctuary areas supersedes their size in determining functional connectivity for mallards and access to these areas may have direct fitness consequences. Our findings could refine land acquisition, restoration, and management practices with equal or greater emphasis on adjacency in protected area network design, especially for wetland-dependent migratory gamebirds.

Susceptibility of dwarf chameleons to climate and land use change: a vulnerability framework for conservation planning

Climate and land use changes are eroding biodiversity globally, and reptiles are highlighted as being particularly susceptible. In South Africa, global changes threaten the persistence of an assemblage of dwarf chameleons (Bradypodion) located in a biodiversity hotspot. We used ecological niche modelling to assess the combined effect of climate change and habitat transformation on these species and assessed their susceptibility in a vulnerability framework under optimistic and pessimistic change scenarios. Although our models showed a gain in suitable climatic space for all coastal species in some scenarios, considerable losses were predicted for most species under the most pessimistic change scenarios. Bradypodion ngomeense, for example is predicted to incur a complete loss of climatic suitability by 2050. The vulnerability framework predicts inland species to be more adversely affected by climate change than coastal species. However, no species show resilience to the combined effects of climate change and habitat transformation. Our models predicted a loss of climatically suitable habitat for most species in protected areas. These findings highlight the importance of a protected area network design to remain a step ahead of these anticipated changes.

Integrative adaptive management to address interactions between biological invasions and protected area connectivity: a Canadian perspective

Expanding and creating protected area networks has become a central pillar of global conservation planning. In the management and design of protected area networks, we must consider not only the positive aspects of landscape connectivity but also how that connectivity may facilitate the spread of invasive species, a challenge that has become known as the connectivity conundrum. Here, we review key considerations for landscape connectivity planning for protected area networks, focusing on interactions between network connectivity and the management of invasive species. We propose an integrative adaptive management framework for protected area network planning with five main elements, including monitoring, budgeting considerations, risk assessment, inter-organizational coordination, and local engagement. Protected area planners can address the dynamic aspects of the connectivity conundrum through collaborative and integrative adaptive management planning.

Guiding marine protected area network design with comparative phylogeography and population genomics: An exemplary case from the Southern Ocean

AbstractAimNetworks of connected marine protected areas (MPAn) are recognized as the key area‐based management tool to preserve biodiversity, moderate exploitation of marine resources and increase ecological resilience to climate change. Although population genetic studies could greatly benefit connectivity assessments between MPAs, genetic data are rarely used in MPAn planning. Here, we aim to illustrate the use of a multispecies and multilocus approach to provide recommendations for MPAn design, highlighting the importance of the species selected and the analyses performed. Our study is focused on the Southern Ocean, an area of keen multinational interest given its scientific significance, economic importance and its unique, shared legal status.LocationSouth Georgia and South Sandwich Islands MPA (SGSSI MPA), the South Orkney Islands and the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP)—where an MPA was proposed in 2018 (Domain 1 MPA) but has not been approved by the Commission for the Conservation of the Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR).MethodsOur datasets include 819 individuals from five different species with contrasting life‐history strategies: two nemerteans (Antarctonemertes valida and A. riesgoae), two annelids (Pterocirrus giribeti and Neanthes kerguelensis) and one sponge (Mycale [Oxymycale] acerata). To identify genetic connectivity patterns in our study area, spanning roughly 2500 km, we used the COI mitochondrial marker and genome‐wide ddRADseq‐derived SNPs.ResultsA consistent lack of connectivity between SGSSI MPA and the WAP was found for all studied species. Additionally, our data indicated a stepping‐stone role for the South Orkney Islands between these two genetically differentiated regions.Main conclusionsOur results reveal how the application of comparative phylogeography and population genomics can guide policymakers in their decision‐making process during MPAn design. We detected priority areas for conservation in Antarctica, including the South Orkney Islands and the WAP, providing strong evidence for the implementation of the Domain 1 MPA.

Climate-Change Refugia for the Bubblegum Coral Paragorgia arborea in the Northwest Atlantic

The large, habitat-forming bubblegum coral,Paragorgia arborea, is a vulnerable marine ecosystem indicator with an antitropical distribution. Dense aggregations of the species have been protected from bottom-contact fishing in the Scotian Shelf bioregion off Nova Scotia, Canada in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. Recently, basin-scale habitat suitability ensemble modeling has projected an alarming loss of 99% of suitable habitat for this species across the North Atlantic by 2100. Here, a regional reassessment of the predicted distribution of this species in the bioregion, using both machine learning (random forest) and generalized additive model (GAM) frameworks, including projection to 2046−2065, was undertaken. Extrapolation diagnostics were applied to determine the degree to which the models projected into novel covariate space (i.e., extrapolation) in order to avoid erroneous inferences. The best predictors of the species’ distribution were a suite of temporally-invariant terrain variables that identified suitable habitat along the upper continental slope. Additional predictors, projected to vary with future ocean climatologies, identified areas of the upper slope in the eastern portion of the study area that will remain within suitable ranges forP. arboreaat least through to the mid-century. Additionally, 3-D Lagrangian particle tracking simulations indicated potential for both connectivity among known occurrence sites and existing protected areas, and for colonization of unsurveyed areas predicted to have suitable habitat, from locations of known occurrence. These results showed that extirpation of this iconic species from the Scotian Shelf bioregion is unlikely over the next decades. Potential climate refugia were identified and results presented in the context of protected area network design properties of representativity, connectivity, adequacy, viability and resilience.

Geographic concordance of genetic barriers in New Zealand coastal marine species

Abstract Comparative phylogeography is recognized as a powerful tool to discern common patterns of connectivity across species, information that can be crucial in assisting the design of protected area networks. Previously, qualitative analyses have been undertaken in New Zealand waters in order to find concordance in marine dispersal barriers. This study presents the first attempt to quantitatively measure the congruence in genetic divergence breaks among 21 New Zealand marine coastal invertebrates, while accounting for the effects of variable sampling scale, life history traits and marker type. Previously recognized phylogeographic barriers to dispersal were found to be significant across species, such as the North–South Island differentiation and a northern genetic break at Cape Reinga. Low‐dispersal species exhibited additional locations of common significant divergence. Some of the differences in genetic barriers observed among species may be more related to the habitat type of the species (intertidal zone or subtidal) and the marker type used in the study (mitochondrial DNA or microsatellites), than to the dispersal traits of the species (high or low dispersal). Despite some limitations, the approach implemented here has significant advantages and permits the use of data from a wide variety of studies. This study provides the first quantitative insight into community‐wide genetic barriers within New Zealand's coastal marine ecosystem and provides directions for future investigations of this type in other regions.

Species stereotypes as a result of unconscious research biases compromise conservation efficacy

Taxonomic and geographic biases in ecological research are widely recognised. In addition, information bias within a species can impact our understanding of their biology. This can lead to an underestimation of potential intra- or inter-population level variation and plasticity, and incomplete inferences about species response curves across environmental gradients. The consequences of these ‘species stereotypes’ are misestimation of the potential niche and narrow, potentially biased, views of habitat and diet preferences. For example, species may be characterised as ecologically static, or a habitat, diet, or prey ‘specialist’. Several factors can contribute to the formation of a ‘stereotype’, including a focus on extant populations, or a subset of them, that only partially represent the full historical distribution of a species, and an emphasis on species interactions derived from a small number of potential communities. Such species stereotypes are likely widespread and impact on many taxa. These misconceptions can have knock-on effects for conservation programmes and lead to ineffective or harmful conservation interventions such as actively managing species in marginal habitats, not identifying key threats and incorrect predictions of vulnerability to environmental change. Recognising biases is vital to addressing these potential problems and providing accurate information for conservation programmes. Biases can be identified by evaluating historical distributions, translocations within historical distributions, developing mechanistic distribution models and assessing traditional ecological knowledge. We suggest that explicit assessment of biases and potential stereotypes are included in red listing or species assessments, biodiversity action plans, and protected area network design and evaluation.

Towards regionalization of the chondrichthyan fauna of the Southwest Atlantic: a spatial framework for conservation planning

AbstractBiogeographic regionalization identifies natural species assemblages of a given region. In this study, the geographic distribution of chondrichthyan species richness and species assemblages for the Southwest Atlantic were identified. The geographic distribution of 103 chondrichthyans was estimated through modelling. Based on the obtained binary maps, the distribution of chondrichthyan richness was obtained at four taxonomic levels: class Chondrichthyes (chondrichthyans), subclass Holocephali (chimaeras), division Selachii (sharks), and division Batomorphi (batoids). The continental shelf off Uruguay and southern Brazil presented the highest levels of chondrichthyan richness, and a smaller peak was found in El Rincón (northern Argentina). Shark richness concentrated mainly off Lagoa dos Patos (southern Brazil). Batoid richness was maximal off Uruguay and northern Argentina, including modes in El Rincón, San Jorge Gulf, and slope of the Argentinean shelf. Classification analyses revealed the presence of a hierarchical regionalization, with three main and six minor assemblages. Main assemblages are hierarchically identifiable as provinces and minor ones as ecoregions or districts. Two of the main assemblages correspond with the Argentinean and Magellanic Provinces; the third one is identified here for the first time, the Patagonian Slope Province. This regionalization provides the basis for the design of protected area networks for conservation or management purposes.

Evolutionary diversity in tropical tree communities peaks at intermediate precipitation

Global patterns of species and evolutionary diversity in plants are primarily determined by a temperature gradient, but precipitation gradients may be more important within the tropics, where plant species richness is positively associated with the amount of rainfall. The impact of precipitation on the distribution of evolutionary diversity, however, is largely unexplored. Here we detail how evolutionary diversity varies along precipitation gradients by bringing together a comprehensive database on the composition of angiosperm tree communities across lowland tropical South America (2,025 inventories from wet to arid biomes), and a new, large-scale phylogenetic hypothesis for the genera that occur in these ecosystems. We find a marked reduction in the evolutionary diversity of communities at low precipitation. However, unlike species richness, evolutionary diversity does not continually increase with rainfall. Rather, our results show that the greatest evolutionary diversity is found in intermediate precipitation regimes, and that there is a decline in evolutionary diversity above 1,490 mm of mean annual rainfall. If conservation is to prioritise evolutionary diversity, areas of intermediate precipitation that are found in the South American ‘arc of deforestation’, but which have been neglected in the design of protected area networks in the tropics, merit increased conservation attention.

Bridging the divide: Social–ecological coherence in Marine Protected Area network design

Abstract Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and networks of MPAs are being implemented globally as a spatial management tool for achieving conservation objectives. There has been considerable progress in reaching the prescribed 10% protected area target for 2020, outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity Aichi Target 11 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14. The application of MPA network design principles (e.g. Representative, ecological connectivity), which underpin ecological coherence, is still lacking or insufficient in many regions. Poor ecological coherence hinders the ecological performance of MPA networks, leading to dysfunction in the flow of ecosystem services and reduced ecosystem benefits, with potentially negative consequences for human well‐being. This paper presents four pivotal focus points for future progress that can bridge the gap between ecological and social systems. The aim is to shift the discourse of ‘ecological coherence’ further into the social sphere, and hence support the alignment of the process of designating ecologically coherent MPA networks with the ‘triple bottom line’ of economic development, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion, as described in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), to achieve social–ecological coherence in MPA network design.

An adaptable toolkit to assess commercial fishery costs and benefits related to marine protected area network design

Around the world, governments are establishing Marine Protected Area (MPA) networks to meet their commitments to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. MPAs are often used in an effort to conserve biodiversity and manage fisheries stocks. However, their efficacy and effect on fisheries yields remain unclear. We conducted a case-study on the economic impact of different MPA network design strategies on the Atlantic cod ( Gadus morhua) fisheries in Canada. The open-source R package that we developed to analyze this case study can be customized to conduct similar analyses for other systems. We used a spatially-explicit individual-based model of population growth and dispersal coupled with a fisheries management and harvesting component. We found that MPA networks that both protect the target species’ habitat and were spatially optimized to improve population connectivity had the highest net present value (i.e., were most profitable for the fishing industry). These higher profits were achieved primarily by reducing the distance travelled for fishing and reducing the probability of a moratorium event. These findings add to a growing body of knowledge demonstrating the importance of incorporating population connectivity in the MPA planning process, as well as the ability of this R package to explore ecological and economic consequences of alternative MPA network designs.

An adaptable toolkit to assess commercial fishery costs and benefits related to marine protected area network design

Around the world, governments are establishing Marine Protected Area (MPA) networks to meet their commitments to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. MPAs are often used in an effort to conserve biodiversity and manage fisheries stocks. However, their efficacy and effect on fisheries yields remain unclear. We conducted a case-study on the economic impact of different MPA network design strategies on the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) fisheries in Canada. The open-source R package that we developed to analyze this case study can be customized to conduct similar analyses for other systems. We used a spatially-explicit individual-based model of population growth and dispersal coupled with a fisheries management and harvesting component. We found that MPA networks that both protect the target species’ habitat and were spatially optimized to improve population connectivity had the highest net present value (i.e., were most profitable for the fishing industry). These higher profits were achieved primarily by reducing the distance travelled for fishing and reducing the probability of a moratorium event. These findings add to a growing body of knowledge demonstrating the importance of incorporating population connectivity in the MPA planning process, as well as the ability of this R package to explore ecological and economic consequences of alternative MPA network designs.

Uncertainty in empirical estimates of marine larval connectivity

Abstract Despite major advances in our capacity to measure marine larval connectivity (i.e. the pattern of transport of marine larvae from spawning to settlement sites) and the importance of these measurements for ecological and management questions, uncertainty in experimental estimates of marine larval connectivity has been given little attention. We review potential uncertainty sources in empirical larval connectivity studies and develop Bayesian statistical methods for estimating these uncertainties based on standard techniques in the mark-recapture and genetics literature. These methods are implemented in an existing R package for working with connectivity data, ConnMatTools, and applied to a number of published connectivity estimates. We find that the small sample size of collected settlers at destination sites is a dominant source of uncertainty in connectivity estimates in many published results. For example, widths of 95% CIs for relative connectivity, the value of which is necessarily between 0 and 1, exceeded 0.5 for many published connectivity results, complicating using individual results to conclude that marine populations are relatively closed or open. This “small sample size” uncertainty is significant even for studies with near-exhaustive sampling of spawners and settlers. Though largely ignored in the literature, the magnitude of this uncertainty is straightforward to assess. Better accountability of this and other uncertainties is needed in the future so that marine larval connectivity studies can fulfill their promises of providing important ecological insights and informing management questions (e.g. related to marine protected area network design, and stock structure of exploited organisms). In addition to using the statistical methods developed here, future studies should consistently evaluate and report a small number of critical factors, such as the exhaustivity of spawner and settler sampling, and the mating structure of target species in genetic studies.

Image-based seabed classification: what can we learn from terrestrial remote sensing?

Maps that depict the distribution of substrate, habitat or biotope types on the seabed are in increasing demand by marine ecologists and spatial planners, underpinning decision making in relation to marine spatial planning and marine protected area network design. Yet, the science discipline of image-based seabed mapping has not fully matured and rapid progress is needed to improve the reliability and accuracy of maps. To speed up the process we have conducted a literature review of common practices in terrestrial image classification based on remote sensing data, a related discipline, albeit with a larger scientific community and longer history. We identified the following key elements of a mapping workflow: (i) Data pre-processing, (ii) Feature extraction, (iii) Feature selection, (iv) Classification, (v) Post-classification enhancements, and (vi) Evaluation of classification performance. Insights gained from the review served as a baseline against which recent seabed mapping studies were compared. In this way we identified knowledge gaps and propose modifications to the mapping workflow. A main concern in current seabed mapping practice is that a large amount of often correlated predictor features is extracted, creating a multidimensional feature space. To effectively fill this space with an appropriate amount of training samples is likely to be impossible. Hence, it is necessary to reduce the dimensionality of the feature space via data transformation [e.g. principal component analysis (PCA)] or feature selection and remove correlated features. We propose to make dimensionality reduction an integral part of any mapping workflow. We also suggest to adopt recommendations for accuracy assessment originally drawn up for terrestrial land cover mapping. These include the publication of two or more measures of accuracy including overall and class-specific metrics, publication of associated confidence limits and the provision of the error matrix.

Systematic conservation planning within a Fijian customary governance context

Although conservation planning research has influenced conservation actions globally in the last two decades, successful implementation of systematic conservation plans in regions where customary marine tenure exists has been minimal. In such regions, local community knowledge and understanding of socioeconomic realities may offer the best spatially explicit information for analysis, since required socioeconomic data are not available at scales relevant to conservation planning. Here we describe the process undertaken by the Kadavu Yaubula Management Support Team, a team of researchers from The University of the South Pacific and the local communities to assess whether systematic conservation planning tools can be effectively applied and useful in a customary governance context, using a case study from Fiji. Through a participatory approach and with the aim of meeting local-scale conservation and fisheries needs, a spatial conservation planning tool, Marxan with Zones, was used to reconfigure a collection of locally designed marine protected areas in the province of Kadavu in order to achieve broader objectives. At the local scale, the real value of such tools has been in the process of identifying and conceptualising management issues, working with communities to collate data through participatory techniques, and in engaging communities in management decision making. The output and use of the tool has been of secondary value. The outcome was invaluable for developing marine protected area network design approaches that combine traditional knowledge with ecological features in a manner appropriate to a Melanesian context.

Complementarity and Area-Efficiency in the Prioritization of the Global Protected Area Network

Complementarity and cost-efficiency are widely used principles for protected area network design. Despite the wide use and robust theoretical underpinnings, their effects on the performance and patterns of priority areas are rarely studied in detail. Here we compare two approaches for identifying the management priority areas inside the global protected area network: 1) a scoring-based approach, used in recently published analysis and 2) a spatial prioritization method, which accounts for complementarity and area-efficiency. Using the same IUCN species distribution data the complementarity method found an equal-area set of priority areas with double the mean species ranges covered compared to the scoring-based approach. The complementarity set also had 72% more species with full ranges covered, and lacked any coverage only for half of the species compared to the scoring approach. Protected areas in our complementarity-based solution were on average smaller and geographically more scattered. The large difference between the two solutions highlights the need for critical thinking about the selected prioritization method. According to our analysis, accounting for complementarity and area-efficiency can lead to considerable improvements when setting management priorities for the global protected area network.

An adaptable toolkit to assess commercial fishery costs and benefits related to marine protected area network design.

Around the world, governments are establishing Marine Protected Area (MPA) networks to meet their commitments to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. MPAs are often used in an effort to conserve biodiversity and manage fisheries stocks. However, their efficacy and effect on fisheries yields remain unclear. We conducted a case-study on the economic impact of different MPA network design strategies on the Atlantic cod ( Gadus morhua) fisheries in Canada. The open-source R toolbox that we developed to analyze this case study can be customized to conduct similar analyses for other systems. We used a spatially-explicit individual-based model of population growth and dispersal coupled with a fisheries management and harvesting component. We found that MPA networks that both protect the target species' habitat (particularly the spawning grounds), and were spatially optimized to improve population connectivity had the highest net present value (i.e., were most profitable for the fishing industry). These higher profits were achieved primarily by reducing the distance travelled for fishing and reducing the probability of a moratorium event. These findings add to a growing body of knowledge demonstrating the importance of incorporating population connectivity in the MPA planning process, as well as the ability of this R toolbox to explore ecological and economic consequences of alternative MPA network designs.

Spatial, socio-economic, and ecological implications of incorporating minimum size constraints in marine protected area network design.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are the cornerstone of most marine conservation strategies, but the effectiveness of each one partly depends on its size and distance to other MPAs in a network. Despite this, current recommendations on ideal MPA size and spacing vary widely, and data are lacking on how these constraints might influence the overall spatial characteristics, socio-economic impacts, and connectivity of the resultant MPA networks. To address this problem, we tested the impact of applying different MPA size constraints in English waters. We used the Marxan spatial prioritization software to identify a network of MPAs that met conservation feature targets, whilst minimizing impacts on fisheries; modified the Marxan outputs with the MinPatch software to ensure each MPA met a minimum size; and used existing data on the dispersal distances of a range of species found in English waters to investigate the likely impacts of such spatial constraints on the region's biodiversity. Increasing MPA size had little effect on total network area or the location of priority areas, but as MPA size increased, fishing opportunity cost to stakeholders increased. In addition, as MPA size increased, the number of closely connected sets of MPAs in networks and the average distance between neighboring MPAs decreased, which consequently increased the proportion of the planning region that was isolated from all MPAs. These results suggest networks containing large MPAs would be more viable for the majority of the region's species that have small dispersal distances, but dispersal between MPA sets and spill-over of individuals into unprotected areas would be reduced. These findings highlight the importance of testing the impact of applying different MPA size constraints because there are clear trade-offs that result from the interaction of size, number, and distribution of MPAs in a network.

Bottom-Up Factors for Algal Productivity Outweigh No-Fishing Marine Protected Area Effects in a Marginal Coral Reef System

Herbivory, together with seasonal variations in temperature, light and nutrient concentration regulate macroalgal populations on coral reefs. Individual management interventions can influence this balance by altering some, but not all of these potential drivers. For example, no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) on coral reefs can increase herbivorous fish abundance, thereby decreasing macroalgal coverage, but have limited influence on water quality and other vagile drivers. We compared the relative influence of seven abiotic water quality variables to that of MPA status on macroalgal coverage in 14 sites (5 of which are within no-take MPAs) over four consecutive seasons (summer through to spring) within the marginal coral reef habitats of Moreton Bay, Australia. Algal cover was quantified by taking 100 photo quadrats per site per sampling with the relative importance of our eight factors determined statistically by generalised additive models. Overall, temporal variations in total macroalgal cover and four out of five important macroalgal genera correlated with factors other than marine protection, especially water temperature, salinity, water clarity (Secchi disc) and nutrient concentration (nitrogen and phosphorus). However, seasonal variations in cover of individual macroalgal genera did not follow strong temporal trends and were not consistent with total macroalgal cover, meaning that different factors were significant for different algal genera. Consequently, we advocate for caution in determining the influence of impact gradients by exclusively measuring total macroalgal cover. This study highlights the importance of considering local impact gradients and habitat recovery processes in the design of protected area networks.

The role of protected area wetlands in waterfowl habitat conservation: Implications for protected area network design

The principal goal of protected area networks is biodiversity preservation, but efficacy of such networks is directly linked to animal movement within and outside area boundaries. We examined wetland selection patterns of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) during non-breeding periods from 2010 to 2012 to evaluate the utility of protected areas to migratory waterfowl in North America. We tracked 33 adult females using global positioning system (GPS) satellite transmitters and implemented a use-availability resource selection design to examine mallard use of wetlands under varying degrees of protection. Specifically, we examined effects of proximities to National Wildlife Refuges, private land, state wildlife management areas, Wetland Reserve Program easements (WRP), and waterfowl sanctuaries on mallard wetland selection. In addition, we included landscape-level variables that measured areas of sanctuary and WRP within the surrounding landscape of each used and available wetland. We developed 8 wetland selection models according to season (autumn migration, winter, spring migration), hunting season (present, absent), and time period (diurnal, nocturnal). Model averaged parameter estimates indicated wetland selection patterns varied across seasons and time periods, but ducks consistently selected wetlands with greater areas of sanctuary and WRP in the surrounding landscape. Consequently, WRP has the potential to supplement protected area networks in the midcontinent region. Additionally, seasonal variation in wetland selection patterns indicated considering the effects of habitat management and anthropogenic disturbances on migratory waterfowl during the non-breeding period is essential in designing protected area networks.