Mission Design Research Articles

Sample Fetch Rover: Enabling Technologies for Planetary Mobility

Abstract The sample fetch rover (SFR) is a novel surface vehicle studied for Mars sample return (MSR). The rover is designed as a multi-mission transportation system with no scientific payloads on board and the only objective of acquiring sample tubes previously deposited on the surface and delivering them to a lander in a strict timeframe. Its mission imposes demanding requirements, such as traverse distance, timeline, mass, volume, and energy, which necessitate the development of new technologies or the augmentation of existing ones. Following the decision not to implement SFR in the MSR campaign, these technologies are becoming attractive for future rover missions to Mars and to the Moon. This paper summarizes the development of these technologies and their applicability to future use cases. The SFR mission profile and design drivers are described herein, along with the system architecture established in response to them. What follows is an overview of the key technologies studied for SFR, focusing on the most critical or innovative ones, such as locomotion, navigation, and sample tube acquisition. The summary includes the other significant aspects of the design: structure, thermal control, mechanisms, control electronics, power, avionics, and communications. For each of these, the main technological advancements and their relevance to forthcoming rover missions are discussed.

Amplicon Sequencing Reveals Diversity in Spatially Separated Microbial Communities in the Icelandic Mars Analog Environment Mælifellssandur.

Exploration missions to Mars rely on landers or rovers to perform multiple analyses over geographically small sampling regions, while landing site selection is done using large-scale but low-resolution remote-sensing data. Utilizing Earth analog environments to estimate small-scale spatial and temporal variation in key geochemical signatures and biosignatures will help mission designers ensure future sampling strategies meet mission science goals. Icelandic lava fields can serve as Mars analog sites due to conditions that include low nutrient availability, temperature extremes, desiccation, and isolation from anthropogenic contamination. This work reports analysis of samples collected using methods analogous to those of planetary missions to characterize microbial communities at different spatial scales in Mælifellssandur, Iceland, an environment with homogeneity at "remote imaging" resolution (overall temperature, apparent moisture content, and regolith grain size). Although microbial richness did not vary significantly among samples, the phylogenetic composition of the sediment microbiome differed significantly among sites separated by 100 m, which suggests distinct microbial signatures despite apparent homogeneity from remote observations. This work highlights the importance of considering microenvironments in future life-detection missions to extraterrestrial planetary bodies.

Research and Prospects of Radiation Mechanisms in Macroscopic Astrophysics

In the field of astrophysics, the study of radiation from different celestial bodies is of great significance. Celestial bodies such as stars, galaxies, and planets emit various types of radiation. However, traditional research has limitations in understanding the radiation mechanisms of some celestial bodies, and the specific processes and factors affecting radiation are not fully clear, which restricts the further development of astrophysics. In this study, a multi-band observation and comprehensive data analysis method is adopted. Through the calibration and normalization of observation data, spectral analysis, image analysis, and other means, the characteristics and mechanisms of celestial body radiation are explored. The results show that different celestial bodies have unique radiation characteristics and evolution processes. This research can optimize the design and planning of space missions. Galaxies consist of numerous stars and have unique radiation features due to active galactic nuclei and interstellar medium. Planets reflect and emit radiation based on their interaction with stars and internal heat sources. This research holds significant value in understanding the structure and evolution of the universe. It provides insights into the physical processes occurring in celestial bodies and helps people better understand the nature of the cosmos.

SSMBERT: A Space Science Mission Requirement Classification Method Based on BERT

Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) has demonstrated importance in the aerospace field. However, the MBSE modeling process is often tedious and heavily reliant on specialized knowledge and experience; thus, a new modeling method is urgently required to enhance modeling efficiency. This article focuses on the MBSE modeling in space science mission phase 0, during which the mission requirements are collected, and the corresponding dataset is constructed. The dataset is utilized to fine-tune the BERT pre-training model for the classification of requirements pertaining to space science missions. This process supports the subsequent automated creation of the MBSE requirement model, which aims to facilitate scientific objective analysis and enhances the overall efficiency of the space science mission design process. Based on the characteristics of space science missions, this paper categorized the requirements into four categories: scientific objectives, performance, payload, and engineering requirements, and constructed a requirements dataset for space science missions. Then, utilizing this dataset, the BERT model is fine-tuned to obtain a space science mission requirements classification model (SSMBERT). Finally, SSMBERT is compared with other models, including TextCNN, TextRNN, and GPT-2, in the context of the space science mission requirement classification task. The results indicate that SSMBERT performs effectively under Few-Shot conditions, achieving a precision of 95%, which is at least 10% higher than other models, demonstrating superior performance and generalization capabilities.

Integrating axiomatic design and design structure matrix into model‐based systems engineering: A case study for emergency response space mission design

AbstractWith the increasing complexity of space missions due to technological advancements, model‐based systems engineering (MBSE) has become a new paradigm for systems engineering (SE), providing a more formal and accurate system engineering process while reducing costs. However, MBSE does not offer a comprehensive approach for effective system function design. This study introduces a conceptual design approach that integrates axiomatic design (AD) and design structure matrix (DSM) into the MBSE paradigm and applies it to functional and logical design. The research focuses on utilizing the design knowledge encapsulated by system models to facilitate the development of new systems. System models have the potential to bridge different design domains in AD, reveal implicit associations, and offer functional and structural analysis capabilities. To validate our approach, we conducted a case study on an Emergency Response Remote Sensing mission system. This case study demonstrates that our proposed methodology lends formality to traditional AD by deriving AD matrices and DSMs from a system model, thereby enhancing the system's structure while curtailing elemental alterations during iterative design processes. The novelty of this research lies in realizing the integration of traditional design theory with the model paradigm of SE, leading to an effective design solution during the functional and logical design stages.

Enabling efficient satellite mission design with rule-based collision avoidance

The growing number of operational spacecraft in Earth's orbit entails an increasing operational effort for collision avoidance (COLA), particularly regarding the coordination of evasive measures. To reduce the associated workload, COLA operations should already be considered in the early planning phases of space missions. The Mission Analysis Software (MAS) is a web-based application developed within the ESA-funded CASCADE (Collision avoidance, satellite coordination assessment demonstration environment) project by OKAPI:Orbits and TU Darmstadt for this purpose. The software follows a data-driven approach to offer satellite operators, mission designers, service providers, agencies, and authorities two services: conjunction assessment and rule analysis. The conjunction assessment provides an estimation of the number and type of conjunctions to be expected on the targeted orbit and identifies frequently conjuncting parties for the current population of active satellites as well as for conceivable future scenarios. The rule analysis follows a rule-based approach to coordinate COLA between individual operators, allowing users to build custom hierarchical rule sets from pre-defined rule building blocks to achieve a desired split of effort between the conjunction parties. The MAS enables the assessment of the operational consequences for a chosen rule set, empowering users to reach bilateral agreements with identified frequently conjuncting parties to determine the obligation to take evasive measures for future conjunctions. The approach of the MAS allows for the pre-emptive reduction of the expected number of conjunctions enabling operators to optimize orbit parameters within their mission constraints as well as the automatization of COLA coordination during operations. Through this, the MAS optimizes propellant needs, mission time, and required workforce associated with COLA for space missions.This paper presents the MAS, showcasing the key features and use cases that have been developed closely with stakeholders and the European Space Agency. Furthermore, the data-based simulation approach of the MAS will be explained, covering the data sources and design choices for the conjunction detection and propagation module. The paper also presents the results of a preliminary rule analysis conducted for the population of active satellites in low Earth orbit as of April 2023. As an intermediate result of an on-going research activity involving the authoring entities, a major goal of this paper is to engage with satellite operators, mission designers, service providers, agencies, and authorities in order to tailor the results of the activity to their actual needs.

An Image Simulator of Lunar Far-Side Impact Flashes Captured from the Earth-Moon L2 Point

Impact flashes on the moon are caused by high-speed collisions of celestial bodies with the lunar surface. The study of the impacts is critical for exploring the evolutionary history and formation of the Moon, and for quantifying the risk posed by the impacts to future human activity. Although the impacts have been monitored from the Earth by a few projects in past 20 years, the events occurring on the lunar far side have not been explored systematically so far. We here present an end-to-end image simulator dedicated to detecting and monitoring the impacts from space, which is useful for future mission design. The simulator is designed for modularity and developed in the Python environment, which is mainly composed of four components: the flash temporal radiation, the background emission, the telescope and the detector used to collect and measure the radiation. Briefly speaking, with a set of input parameters, the simulator calculates the flash radiation in the context of the spherical droplet model and the background emission from the lunar surface. The resulting images are then generated by the simulator after considering a series observational effects, including the stray light, transmission of the instrument, point spread function and multiple kinds of noise caused by a CCD/CMOS detector. The simulator is validated by comparing the calculation with the observations taken on the ground. The modular design enables the simulator to be improved and enhanced by including more complex physical models in the future, and to be flexible for other future space missions.

Defining and Measuring Crewmember Operational State for Spaceflight Operations.

A suite of human health and performance metrics can be used to provide a holistic cognitive, physical, and emotional view of an individual and assess how well they are integrated with the overall system during spaceflight missions. The combination of such individual metrics as defined here is notionally termed "crewmember operational state." This work identifies and defines the contributing components that comprise the proposed crewmember operational state. Considerations of how to measure the components in a spaceflight environment are summarized and the steps required to analyze and integrate these measurements into an operational framework are outlined. Use of the measurements and integration steps are then extended into several applications relevant to human spaceflight mission design and operations. For the framework and applications defined here to become operationally feasible, several limitations and gaps that remain to be addressed are presented with recommended future research and enabling technology advancement needs. Zero M, Klaus D, Arquilla K, Fanchiang C. Defining and measuring crewmember operational state for spaceflight operations. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2024; 95(12):919-929.

Virgin unmarried scientist Elnaz Ghaffari is a volunteer to give birth in space on her space mission design: Ensuring safety during space missions

The title "Virgin, Unmarried Scientist Elnaz Ghaffari is a Volunteer to Give Birth in Space on Her Space Mission Design: Ensuring Safety During Space Missions" compellingly captures the groundbreaking nature of this mission and highlights Elnaz Ghaffari's unique commitment to advancing space science. It not only underscores the scientific and exploratory aspects but also brings a personal touch by mentioning her volunteerism and detailed design for safety. This title is clear, informative, and intriguing—sure to grab attention and spark curiosity about the mission, making it a great choice for communicating the innovative and inspirational goals of the project. The resuscitation and care of a mother-astronaut during space missions present unique challenges that necessitate meticulous planning and precise execution. This article outlines a comprehensive plan for managing maternal cardiopulmonary arrest, addressing critical steps such as high-quality CPR, advanced cardiac life support (ACLS), airway management, and preparation for potential cesarean sections. Additionally, it discusses the importance of fitness, nutrition, and fetal weight control for the mother-astronaut. The presence of a Crew Medical Officer (CMO), who is a trained astronaut with medical expertise, significantly enhances the safety and success of the mission. The article concludes with a detailed overview of the space mission program, emphasizing pre-flight, in-flight, and post-flight activities to ensure the safe return of both mother and neonate to Earth.

A novel pattern language method for tradespace exploration: application to space mission architecting

With the growing complexity of systems across diverse domains, key challenges emerge in simultaneously designing networks and their underlying infrastructure, requiring resolution at concept stage. In space mission design, technological advancements and ambitious goals enable numerous mission architecture concepts due to diverse material flow options. Current design support tools function either after the initial concept design, or tend to rapidly converge toward point solutions, limiting the solution space. We introduce a digital tool for early-stage concept design, capable of generating, evaluating, and visualising a wide range of user-defined architectural options. It utilises a pattern language for space missions, incorporating building blocks like ‘launch’ or ‘electrolysis’. Validation with historic missions showcase the tool automatically identifies all four main mission architectures considered during the Apollo design and more, and accurately recommending the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous architecture which was actually selected. Predicted masses, informing costs, vary by 15% and duration by 30% from actual values, which is within expectations. Identifying missions and leveraging expert knowledge is also demonstrated in the Mars Sample Return case. This approach can help minimise the risk of overlooking effective mission concepts early on. Furthermore, the method is applicable in other domains facing concurrent infrastructure and logistics design challenges.

3Cat-8 Mission: A 6-Unit CubeSat for Ionospheric Multisensing and Technology Demonstration Test-Bed

This paper presents the mission analysis of 3Cat-8, a 6-Unit CubeSat mission being developed by the UPC NanoSat Lab for ionospheric research. The primary objective of the mission is to monitor the ionospheric scintillation of the aurora, and to perform several technological demonstrations. The satellite incorporates several novel systems, including a deployable Fresnel Zone Plate Antenna (FZPA), an integrated PocketQube deployer, a dual-receiver GNSS board for radio occultation and reflectometry experiments, and a polarimetric multi-spectral imager for auroral emission observations. The mission design, the suite of payloads, and the concept of operations are described in detail. This paper discusses the current development status of 3Cat-8, with several subsystems already developed and others in the final design phase. It is expected that the data gathered by 3Cat-8 will contribute to a better understanding of ionospheric effects on radio wave propagation and demonstrate the feasibility of compact remote sensors in a CubeSat platform.

Mission Design and Validation of a Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for Environmental Monitoring

Climate change is becoming a worldwide emergency. In order to prevent catastrophic levels of climate change, three broad categories of action are ongoing: cutting emissions, adapting to climate impacts, and financing required adjustments. Cutting emissions requires stopping the use of fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources. Adapting to climate change and financing required adjustments need instruments for the understanding of the source causes and how effective the potential measures are. In this context, the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for environmental monitoring is continuously increasing thanks to their ability to collect a wide range of environmental data, from the quality of air to the health status of vegetation, waters, and lands. This paper describes the research activities that are being performed for the design and development of a 100 kg Max Take Off Mass prototype zero-emission Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, named Daphne, destined for environmental monitoring, surveillance, and inspection missions. The developed prototype will drive the next industrialization of the vehicle. A particular focus is given to the design of the power system, based on the use of Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells fueled with green hydrogen, the integration of the sensors allowing for multipurpose observations and measurements, and the design and validation of the relative multi-purpose missions via an innovative approach based on Model-Based System Engineering.

Comparative Analysis of Next-Generation Space Computing Applications on AMD-Xilinx Versal Architecture

Space computing has unique considerations that limit the achievable performance capabilities of onboard processing. Due to these limiting factors, current state-of-the-art devices for space computing are unable to meet the performance and energy-efficiency requirements for next-generation communication, navigation, and artificial-intelligence applications planned for future science and exploration missions. Space designers are transitioning to domain-specific architectures with specialized acceleration hardware, such as the AMD-Xilinx Versal Adaptive System-on-Chip, to address these issues. This heterogeneous platform provides developers with several processing subsystems that allow for mission-specific customization, including scalar processing units, programmable logic, and AI engine technology enabled by vector processing units. In this paper, performance, power-consumption, energy-efficiency, and resource-utilization tradeoffs for each Versal processing subsystem are evaluated by benchmarking a suite of representative next-generation artificial-intelligence and communication applications for space. This evaluation yields a design tradespace that mission designers can use to determine the Pareto-optimal solution for an artificial-intelligence or communication application based on performance requirements and power constraints. Additionally, this evaluation demonstrates that the performance and energy-efficiency benefits of the AI engines for space computing are significant; however, they are curtailed by considerably more power consumption than the scalar processors and programmable logic.

Stable configuration design for libration point gravitational wave observatory

The Sun-Earth L2 libration point configuration is one of the options for space-based gravitational wave detection. Long-term configuration stability is crucial for high-precision measurements, challenged by the strong nonlinear dynamics of the Sun-Earth three-body system. This paper proposes an efficient design method and determines the feasible parameter domain for the libration point gravitational wave observatory. First, the dynamic model for the libration point configuration is established, and the stability indexes are defined. The sensitive parameters that affect the relative geometric configuration are discussed and the phase angle is found to be the key factor. Then, an efficient design method is proposed, and the procedure is divided into two steps. The phase angle of the Earth phase offset orbit and the libration point configuration are optimized successively. Finally, the proposed method is applied to the LAGRANGE mission concept. The results show that the three stability indexes decrease by 59%, 42% and 23%, respectively. Moreover, a mapping between configuration parameters and stability indexes is established. The feasible parameter domain for the stable libration point configuration is discussed. The feasible amplitudes domain in the x and z directions of the libration point orbit should be less than 6200 km and 42000 km, respectively, to guarantee configuration stability. This research could provide a reference for the stable design and implementation of gravitational wave detection missions utilizing libration point configuration in the future.

Database of Candidate Targets for the LIFE Mission

We present the database of potential targets for the Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE), a space-based mid-infrared nulling interferometer mission proposed for the Voyage 2050 science program of the European Space Agency. The database features stars, their planets and disks, main astrophysical parameters, and ancillary observations. It allows users to create target lists based on various criteria to predict, for instance, exoplanet detection yields for the LIFE mission. As such, it enables mission design trade-offs, provides context for the analysis of data obtained by LIFE, and flags critical missing data. Work on the database is in progress, but given its relevance to LIFE and other space missions, including the Habitable Worlds Observatory, we present its main features here. A preliminary version of the LIFE database is publicly available on the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory.

Radiation exposure of astronauts following an intense solar particle event: analysis and comparison of doses in male and female voxel phantoms.

According to NASA's plans, a human travel to the Moon is planned by the end of 2025 with the Artemis II mission, and humans should land on the Moon again in 2026. Exposure to space radiation is one of the main risks for the crew members; while for these short missions the doses from galactic cosmic rays would be relatively low, the possible occurrence of an intense solar particle event (SPE) represents a major concern, especially considering that in 2025 the Sun activity will be at its peak. Quantifying the amount and the effects of such exposure is therefore crucial, to identify shielding conditions that allow respecting the dose limits established by the various space agencies. By exploiting an interface between the BIANCA biophysical model and the FLUKA Monte Carlo radiation transport code, in this work we implemented a male and a female voxel phantom and we calculated absorbed doses and Gy-Eq doses in the various tissues/organs, as well as effective doses, following exposure to the August 1972 SPE, the most intense event of the modern era. The calculations were performed respect the organ dose limits for 30 d missions. A detailed comparison between male and female doses was then carried out, also considering that the Artemis II crew will include a woman. The results showed that female doses tend to be higher than male doses, especially with light shielding. This should be taken into account in mission design, also considering that, in a typical lunar mission, up to 15% of time may be spent in extra-vehicular activities, and thus with light shielding. More generally, this work outlines the importance of performing separate calculations for male and female astronauts when dealing with radiation doses and effects.

Investigating Subsurface Properties of the Shallow Lunar Crust Using Seismic Interferometry on Synthetic and Recorded Data

AbstractIn the past few years, the remarkable progress of commercially operated spacecrafts, the success with reusable rocket engines, as well as the international competition to explore space, has led to a substantial acceleration of activities in the design and preparation of ambitious future lunar missions. In the search for ice and/or cavities imaging the shallow subsurface structure is of vital importance. Hereby, previous studies have shown that seismic interferometry is a promising method to investigate the subsurface properties from passive lunar data. In this study, we want to evaluate the potential of this method further by examining the required duration of seismic measurements and the influence of scattering on the Green's function retrieval. Therefore, we applied seismic interferometry to both measured Apollo 17 data and synthetic data. Our findings indicate that, under optimal conditions, a few hours of data are sufficient when using the method of time‐scaled phase‐weighted stack (ts‐PWS). However, this strongly depends on the inter‐station distance, the orientation toward the principal noise sources, and the timing of the measurement during the lunar cycle. Additionally, we were able to reproduce the measured data using numerical simulations in 2D. The synthetic results show that scattering effects clearly influence the Green's function extraction, especially for larger station distances.

Quantifying Uncertainty in Atmospheric Winds Retrieved from Optical Flow: Dependence on Weather Regime

Abstract This study explores the performance of a dense optical flow method in comparison to pattern-matching techniques for retrieving atmospheric motion vectors (AMVs) from water vapor images. Using high-resolution simulated datasets that represent various weather phenomena, we assess the performance of these methods across different weather regimes, time intervals, and pressure levels and quantify the uncertainties associated with retrieved winds. The optical flow algorithm consistently outperforms the feature matching approach. Notably, it produces wind speeds and AMVs that closely resemble the wind fields from the simulations, and unlike the feature matching algorithm, the optical flow algorithm exhibits consistent performance across different time intervals. In contrast, the feature matching approach yields vector fields that exhibit oversmoothing in certain areas and erratic behavior in others, while also producing less detailed, regionally constant speed maps. Furthermore, unlike feature matching, the optical flow method effectively calculates AMV near regions with missing data, generating a dense AMV field for every pixel in a pair of images. This superior performance and flexibility significantly influence the planning for future satellite missions aimed at retrieving atmospheric winds. As such, our work plays a critical role in determining the mission architecture and projected instrument performance for future atmospheric wind retrieval satellite missions. The study underscores the potential of the optical flow algorithm as a robust and efficient approach for atmospheric motion retrieval, thus contributing to advances in climate research and weather prediction. Significance Statement This research investigates the efficacy of two methods, optical flow and feature matching, for detecting atmospheric winds, referred to as atmospheric motion vectors, from satellite images of water vapor. Employing detailed simulated datasets that replicate real-world weather patterns, we found that optical flow consistently outperforms feature matching in various aspects. Notably, the optical flow method is not only more precise but also maintains its accuracy across different scenarios. These insights are critical for the design of future satellite missions focused on advancing our understanding of the atmosphere and enhancing weather predictions. This study contributes to advancements in climate research and supports improved weather forecasting, benefiting both scientific and societal needs.

MAUVE: An Ultraviolet Astrophysics Probe Mission Concept

We present the mission concept “Mission to Analyze the UltraViolet universE” (MAUVE), a wide-field spectrometer and imager conceived during the inaugural NASA Astrophysics Mission Design School. MAUVE responds to the 2023 Announcement of Opportunity for Probe-class missions, with a budget cap of $1 billion, and would hypothetically launch in 2031. However, the formulation of MAUVE was an educational exercise and the mission is not being developed further. The Principle Investigator-led science of MAUVE aligns with the priorities outlined in the 2020 Astrophysics Decadal Survey, enabling new characterizations of exoplanet atmospheres, the early-time light curves of some of the universe’s most explosive transients, and the poorly-understood extragalactic background light. Because the Principle Investigator science occupies 30% of the observing time available during the mission’s 5 yr lifespan, we provide an observing plan that would allow for 70% of the observing time to be used for General Observer programs, with community-solicited proposals. The onboard detector (THISTLE) claims significant heritage from the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph on Hubble, but extends its wavelength range down to the extreme UV. We note that MAUVE would be the first satellite in decades with the ability to access this regime of the electromagnetic spectrum. MAUVE has a field of view of 900″ × 900″, a photometric sensitivity extending to m UV ≤ 24, and a resolving power of R ∼ 1000. This paper provides full science and mission traceability matrices for this concept, and also outlines cost and scheduling timelines aimed at enabling a within-budget mission and an on-time launch.

Mutation Operator for Resonance Flybys in Moon Tour Design Optimization

The global optimization of the moon tour design problem is addressed in this paper. These missions are usually designed using graphical methods or grid search, which require simplifying assumptions, and a skillful mission designer. The grid search methods are computationally intense. Trajectories with a high number of flybys and multiple resonance flybys are usually hard to optimize, especially with small-size/short-period flyby moons. This work proposes a new mutation operator that is incorporated with the Monotonic Basin Hopping in the Evolutionary Mission Trajectory Generator tool; this mutation operator increases the exploration of resonance flybys to improve convergence in moon tour design optimization problems. In this work, the Hidden Genes Genetic Algorithm is used to optimize the undetermined number of moon flybys. A Europa Clipper-like mission is optimized assuming two-body dynamics, and a validation study for the proposed resonance mutation operator is presented. The results include an optimized baseline solution and a new solution with a different sequence of flybys with a different sequence of flybys for the Europa Clipper-like mission, in addition to an optimized moon tour in the Saturnian system.