Cockpit Design Research Articles

A Survey of Situation Awareness Requirements in Air-to-Air Combat Fighters

The situation awareness (SA) requirements of air-to-air fighter pilots were assessed through a series of analyses, including (a) unstructured interviews, (b) goal-directed task analysis, and (c) structured questionnaires administered to experienced pilot subjects. The resultant requirements and information on the relative priority among elements are presented along with a methodology for determining SA requirements in various systems. Limitations of the study and implications for cockpit design are discussed.

Flightdeck performance: the human factor : O'Hare, D and Roscoe, S Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 1990, 295 pp, 343 refs

Vision and visibility:the pilot's eye view Orientation:the spatial senses Training environments: instruction and simulation Human factors in cockpit design Navigation and communication Stress, fatigue and performance Accidents, human abilities and pilot errors Social psychology in the cockpit Perfect failures.

Knowledge-based system to assess air crew training requirements

A description is given of a prototype training assessment tool developed as part of a computer-based cockpit design and analysis workstation that estimates the training resources and time imposed by the anticipated mission and cockpit design. Embedding instructional system and training analysis domain knowledge in a production system environment, the tool allows crew station designers to readily determine the training ramifications of their choices for cockpit equipment, mission tasks, and operator qualifications. Initial results have been validated by comparison to an existing training program, demonstrating the tool's utility as a conceptual design aid and illuminating areas for future development. >

Field study of communication and workload in police helicopters: Implications for AI cockpit design : Linde, C., and Shively, R.J. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann Meeting Anaheim, California, 24–28 Oct, 1988. The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, 1988, pp 237–241, 11 refs

Field study of communication and workload in police helicopters: Implications for AI cockpit design : Linde, C., and Shively, R.J. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann Meeting Anaheim, California, 24–28 Oct, 1988. The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, 1988, pp 237–241, 11 refs

Incorporating Dynamic Field of View Information to Design the Next-Generation Black Hawk Helicopter Cockpit

Changing flight tactics and increased use of Night Vision Goggles (NVGs) has focused attention on the limited Field of View (FOV) of the Army UH-60A Black Hawk Helicopter. To improve the FOV in the next generation Black Hawk, the U.S. Army tasked an independent contractor to investigate the problem and propose alternatives. The study involved a comprehensive review of Army requirement documents, existing FOV studies, and accident data. Close attention was given to dynamic flight characteristics that affect FOV. Also, the study team collected technical data related to military rotary wing design, administered a survey to pilots; and interviewed users and other technical experts. The study revealed the current UH-60A design meets the requirements of MIL-STD-850B under static conditions. The only exception is the obstructed view that the door and windshield vertical structures create. However, under dynamic conditions the UH-60A cockpit design and normal flight characteristics substantially reduce the FOV in critical areas. The study produced eleven options that can improve and/or enhance the next generation Black Hawk's FOV if incorporated into the new design. Each option is presented and discussed.

Emerging Trends in Present and Future Aircraft Cockpit Designs: Challenges in Analysis, Design and Evaluation

Recent breakthroughs in display and control avionics constitute one of those remarkable technological milestones that from time to time will spur aircraft development and airline operations. Whether in technical areas or operational functions - trade-offs between continuity and progress have steered the design and deployment of the Airbus family of aircraft. In particular, cockpit development has directly proceeded from a permanent process of monitoring new technology availability and problems; and of evaluating how best to improve the pilot’s working environment within realistic airline constraints (economics, maintenance, training, ATC, human resources etc.). The drive of this adaptation and integration process through technology leaps and systems' interfacing ambitionned the eventual inclusion of the human operators in the safety loop, a goal long sought in the profession. While economic effectiveness and industrial feasibility were most important factors to be considered between possible solutions, the safety imperative has always been the prime parameter nonetheless. Some of the emerging operational needs and conceptual orientations related to automation are reviewed in this paper. In direct conjunction with this, Airbus Industrie has conducted an important research programme from the early 1980’s onwards, gradually investigating the ergonomic, physiologic and operational factors affecting flight crew in their working environment, and progressively refining the data acquisition and analysis techniques (Speyer J.-J., Fort A., October 1982) relative to workload measurement.

Field Study of Communication and Workload in Police Helicopters: Implications for AI Cockpit Design

This paper reports on the work performed by civilian helicopter crews, using audio and video recordings and a variety of workload measures (heart rate and subjective ratings) obtained in a field study of public service helicopter missions. The number and frequency of communications provided a significant source of workload. This is relevant to the design of automated cockpit systems, since many designs presuppose the use of voice I/O systems. Fluency of communications (including pauses, hesitation markers, repetitions, and false starts) furnished an early indication of the effects of fatigue. Three workload measures were correlated to identify high workload segments of flight, and to suggest alternate task allocations between crew members.

Cockpit Automation Concept Development for the NUH-60 (STAR) Aircraft

A study was performed to derive an automation and avionics integration design concept for the NUH-60 Systems Testbed for Avionics Research (STAR) aircraft. The STAR, a one-of-a-kind reconfiguration of the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter, is being developed by the U.S. Army Avionics Research and Development Activity to provide a flight demonstrator and research vehicle for state-of-the-art cockpit technology. The work was directed toward determining cockpit design preferences associated with single-pilot performance of the Army scout and utility missions. Emphasis was placed on high workload phases of the missions during which eyes-out-of-the-cockpit and hands-on-controls performance capabilities would be most crucial. A number of cockpit-based design alternatives in the areas of communication, navigation, aircraft survivability equipment (ASE) operations, subsystem status monitoring, and aircraft performance computation and prediction were systematically derived and proposed.

Comparison of Speech and Pictorial Displays in a Cockpit Environment

A current trend in cockpit design is to incorporate synthesized speech to present secondary information. Multiple-resource theories of information processing support this, but theories of stimulus/central-processing/response compatibility suggest that spatial information presented visually may have some advantages over speech if the response is manual. Two experiments compare response performance over single and dual tasks when information was presented pictorially and by speech. Pictorial subjects responded more quickly than did speech subjects. The addition of the visual tracking task in the dual-task condition had a differential effect on performance, depending on the modality of the primary task and the rate at which information was presented. The dual task impeded performance more in the fast and medium presentation rates for the speech condition but had little differential effect across rates for the pictorial condition. Analysis of the error data indicated that subjects in the pictorial condition were better able to maintain the context of the emergency than those in the speech condition. Results are discussed in terms of current theories of information processing.

Evaluation of formats for aircraft control/display units

Control/display unit (CDU) technology has been advancing more rapidly than the human factors research needed to establish guidelines for the design of display formats. Such guidelines must be established and followed to ensure effective and efficient human performance in the cockpit environment. A preliminary study which addressed the issue of defining an optimal CDU display format design was completed. Subjects were asked to search visually alphanumeric displays for a single piece of information and indicate when it was found. Data were collected on the elapsed time to isolate the information as well as the accuracy of the information retrieval. Ten formats of two information densities each were evaluated. Each format contained labels and associated data for typical flight information such as communications data (radio type and frequency) and navigation data (waypoint identifier, longitude and latitude). The ten basic format designs were developed by changing the location relationship between the labels and their associated data. Data were collected while subjects did and did not perform a two-dimensional tracking task. Preliminary findings indicate that both format design and density affect operator response time and response accuracy. Implications of the results for the design of cockpit displays are discussed.

Anthropometric Design Variables and Performance

This study analyzed performance correlates resulting from various applications of anthropometric data used in tactical aircraft cockpit design. Three anthropometric cockpit-geometry configurations were used as variables in performance testing a sample of 50 subjects, undergraduate and graduate college students as well as military pilots. The task was a simulated tactical, combat flight. Variables included: (a) viewing a display from a design eye-position based on uncorrected anthropometric data derived from traditional measuring techniques-erect, (b) viewing the display from the same position as (a) with the exception that supports were used to prevent or relieve fatigue-supported, and (c) viewing the display from a position 3.81-cm lower than the erect position to accommodate the postural displacement resulting from (i) normal upper body slouch, (ii) torso-restraint body retention, and (iii) wearing aviators equipment—actual. The mean performance scores in the actual condition were significantly better than scores which resulted from the supported or erect condition based on traditional application of anthropometric criterion.

Degradation of force-loaded pursuit tracking performance in a dual-task paradigm.

Fifty-four subjects performed pursuit tracking on a specially modified pursuit rotor. Each subject tracked for 2 min at each of three levels of force, both with and without a simultaneous auditory attention task. The presence of the auditory task resulted in a significant degradation of tracking performance. This degradation was most severe for the females in the sample. Performance degradation was also related to the position along the tracking path in which the tracking occurred. Performance on the auditory task was significantly affected both by the difficulty level of the task, and by the amount of force exertion required on the pursuit rotor. Results are discussed in terms of task compatibility and cockpit design.

There's a Voice in the Sky; but Can a Picture Tell you More?

A current trend in cockpit design is to incorporate synthesized speech to present secondary information. Multiple resource theories of information processing support this, but theories of stimulus-central processing-response compatibility suggest that spatial information presented visually may have some advantages over speech. An experiment was run comparing tracking and response performance when information was presented pictorially and by speech. Pictorial subjects responded quicker and improved more with learning than did speech subjects. More research on the spatial advantages of pictorial displays is needed before too many speech displays are incorporated into the cockpit.

Pilot Error Accidents: A Total System Approach to Analysis

New technology systems are radically changing cockpit designs. But little information is available about the best use of the capabilities provided by these new systems to optimize crew performance and minimize pilot error accidents. This paper describes a method for using pilot error accident analyses to identify areas in which aircraft design improvements would be desirable and cost effective. A Total System Approach can be used to extract generic information from the accident records while protecting the privileged information contained in those records. Accident reports, grouped for analysis by experienced specialists, can be scrutinized to expose areas in which flight and/or mission requirements exceed pilot capabilities. Technology needs, aimed at either reducing flight/mission requirements or enhancing pilot capabilities, can then be identified. A better balance of these requirements and capabilities can be expected to reduce pilot error accidents, resulting in cost savings which would offset the cost of new system design development.

Principles of S-C-R compatibility with spatial and verbal tasks: the role of display-control location and voice-interactive display-control interfacing.

A pilot's tasks may be categorized into those that demand predominantly verbal operations and those that are spatial. We describe two experiments that define two principles of compatibility of interfacing such tasks with displays and controls. The first, based upon hemispheric laterality effects, defines compatibility according 10 the display location and the response hand; the second defines compatibility according to the modality of display (auditory and visual) and response (manual and speech). Verbal tasks are best served by auditory inputs and speech response, whereas spatial tasks are best served by visual-manual channels. In both experiments, these principles of compatibility are confirmed under dual-task conditions. We describe their implications for cockpit design.

Magic - Riding the Crest of Technology or Do you Believe in MAGIC

With the advent of integrated electronics displays in advanced cockpit design, the role of dynamic mockups is becoming increasingly important. The human factors researcher can now evalute dynamic computer generated formats and real-time interactive control methods in preliminary crew station design phases. This ability to prescreen candidate display formats prior to evaluation in high fidelity simulators is very cost effective. Instead of being limited to conventional static capability, the rapid advances in micro-chip technology now allow more sophisticated research at the mockup level. This paper describes the design of a dynamic mockup which incorporates state-of-the-art microprocessors, graphic systems, and voice capability.

Crew System Assessment Methods Applied to Derivative Fighter Cockpits

Representatives from five Air Force Laboratories were tasked to perform an assessment of conceptual cockpit designs being considered for a derviative, dual role fighter weapon system. An in-cockpit “role playing” exercise, demonstrating the tasks of a composite weapon system mission scenario, was employed in obtaining expert subject opinion data.

Airborne electronic displays

Electronic displays are being increasingly used in aircraft for the presentation of information to aircrew. This trend is due to two principal reasons, the steady improvements in the technology of electronic displays which are finding growing use in a wide range of markets, and the radical changes to the methods of distributing and processing data on board both military and civil aircraft. However, the peculiar environmental and other factors which constrain the design of airborne displays have caused the aircraft world to lag behind other markets in the use of new types of electronic display. It is the aim of the paper to review both the available and potentially promising display technologies, the human factors and environmental constraints, and the integration of the display devices into the total avionic systems, in order to present a balanced view of both the advantages and the problems associated with the use of airborne electronic displays. The design of the aircraft cockpit and the wide range of ambient light levels impose particular problems, and these are considered in relation to the characteristics of the human eye to provide some overall guidelines for display design. The types of information which are typically presented and the design of symbology are reviewed. Electronic display devices described include monochrome and colour CRTs, which are coming into use in the new generation of civil aircraft after many years of use in military aircraft, digitally-addressed CRTs, and a range of solid-state matrix and alphanumeric displays, both emissive and reflective. Image intensifiers for use in night operation are discussed. Some types of display, particularly for military aircraft, incorporate optical elements for magnification, collimation and image combination, and the use of both refractive and diffractive optial techniques is reviewed. The design of complete display systems to provide multifunction capability and protection against component failure is seen as one of the greatest potential advantages of integrating electronic displays with digital data highways.

Design Criteria for Aircraft Warning, Caution, and Advisory Alerting Systems

An overabundance of warning, caution, and advisory alerts will exist in the cockpits of future commercial transport aircraft if current cockpit design trends are not altered. Coupled with this proliferation of alerts is a lack of correlation between alert-type applications and significance. The potential for pilot saturation and/or confusion exists with these alerts. A study was performed for the FAA to identify these problem areas and to develop design guidelines for alerting systems in new aircraft. Recommendations resulting therefrom include: 1) improve pilots' audio/visual environment by minimizing exposure to unnecessary alerts; 2) incorporate central alphanumeric alert readout devices; and 3) improve categorization and/or prioritization of alerts.

The design of future cockpits for high performance fighter aircraft

With the development over the last half decade of very highly manoeuverable aircraft, a new design question has arisen. This is, how do we as aircraft designers ensure that the future fighter pilot can function in an environment which pushes not only his mental but also his physiological limits to the utmost? The new generation of aircraft offers substantial increases in sustained turn rate and hence g levels. Furthermore a proliferation of controls and displays confront the pilot from which he has to collect, collate, integrate and interpret data which is not currently presented in anything like a logical manner with respect to his present flight phase.This paper is an attempt to describe a systematic design approach to a cockpit for the future generation fighter aircraft. The paper will show the pilot's physiological limitations to high sustained g forces, the likely performance of a new generation fighter and the amount of g tolerance a pilot should find useful. Methods of providing this increased tolerance will be discussed. An analytical method of assessing aircraft information presentation requirements will also be shown which will enable information to be presented in a more logical manner.