Desert Reclamation Research Articles

Hydraulic and Hydrogeochemical Characterization of Carbonate Aquifers in Arid Regions: A Case from the Western Desert, Egypt

Using geochemical and pumping test data from 80 groundwater wells, the chemical, hydrologic, and hydraulic properties of the fractured Eocene carbonate aquifer located west of the Al-Minya district, the Western Desert, Egypt, have been characterized and determined to guarantee sustainable management of groundwater resources under large-scale desert reclamation projects. The hydrochemical data show that groundwater from the fractured Eocene carbonate aquifer has a high concentration of Na+ and Cl− and varies in salinity from 2176 to 2912 mg/L (brackish water). Water–rock interaction and ion exchange processes are the most dominant processes controlling groundwater composition. The carbonate aquifer exists under confined to semi-confined conditions, and the depth to groundwater increases eastward. From the potentiometric head data, deep-seated faults are the suggested pathways for gas-rich water ascending from the deep Nubian aquifer system into the overlying shallow carbonate aquifer. This mechanism enhances the dissolution and karstification of carbonate rocks, especially in the vicinity of faulted sites, and is supported by the significant loss of mud circulation during well drilling operations. The average estimated hydraulic parameters, based on the analysis of step-drawdown, long-duration pumping and recovery tests, indicate that the Eocene carbonate aquifer has a wide range of transmissivity (T) that is between 336.39 and 389,309.28 m2/d (average: 18,405.21 m2/d), hydraulic conductivity (K) between 1.31 and 1420.84 m/d (average: 70.29 m/d), and specific capacity (Sc) between 44.4 and 17,376.24 m2/d (average: 45.24 m2/d). On the other hand, the performance characteristics of drilled wells show that well efficiency ranges between 0.47 and 97.08%, and well losses range between 2.92 and 99.53%. In addition to variations in carbonate aquifer thickness and clay/shale content, the existence of strong karstification features, i.e., fissures, fractures or caverns, and solution cavities, in the Eocene carbonate aquifer are responsible for variability in the K and T values. The observed high well losses might be related to turbulent flow within and adjacent to the wells drilled in conductive fracture zones. The current approach can be further used to enhance local aquifer models and improve strategies for identifying the most productive zones in similar aquifer systems.

Hydrogeochemical and isotopic investigations of groundwater in the reclaimed desert located between EL Nasr canal and Mariut Tableland, NW Coast, Egypt

A complete understanding of groundwater dynamics and its interaction with surface water under the impact of agricultural activities is vital for local agriculture, ecology, and residents of dry regions, which is not commonly recognized in arid areas. This research outlines the geochemical characteristics, recharge sources, and potential factors impacting groundwater quality in a new land reclamation located in the small basin of Abu Mina, which is part of the Western Nile Delta region.1 Thirty-one groundwater samples and two surface water samples were collected in 2021 to represent the Pleistocene aquifer and were subjected to multivariate statistical, hydrochemical, and stable isotope analyses. Data analysis demonstrates that Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ and SO42– > Cl– > HCO3– > NO3– are the predominant cations and anions, respectively. Groundwater salinity ranged from 465.60 to 6455.18 mg/l, with slightly alkaline. Most of the water samples fall into one of three types of facies: Ca–Cl, Na–Cl, and Mixed Ca–Mg–Cl, in decreasing order. The meteoric genesis index (r2) indicates that deep meteoric water percolation dominates the Pleistocene aquifer. The aquiline diagrams, correlation matrix, and different ionic ratios indicate that evaporation, reverse ion exchange reactions, and the dissolution of carbonate and silicate minerals are the main processes governing groundwater chemistry. Factor analysis (FA) indicated that three factors explain groundwater hydrochemistry, accounting for 71.98% of the total variance. According to the rotating components matrix (F1–F3), the chemistry of the Quaternary aquifer is principally affected by evaporation, ion exchange reactions, and anthropogenic influences. Additionally, salinity increases due to the return flow of irrigation activities and mixing between old and recent water. The stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) indicate that the Quaternary aquifer receives groundwater recharge through the return flow of excess irrigation and canal seepage. Under desert reclamation conditions, groundwater salinization processes should be given special consideration. All groundwater samples are appropriate for agricultural irrigation based on the Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Permeability Index (PI), Percent Sodium (%Na), and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC).

Long-term effects of conventional cultivation on soil cation exchange capacity and base saturation in an arid desert region

Land reclamation and subsequent management affect soil condition, which is critical for sustainable agricultural production. Soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation (BS%) play an important role in the assessment of soil fertility and buffering capacity. However, the variation of these indicators in the evolution of oasis farmland in arid desert areas remains unclear. Therefore, this study was carried out aiming to evaluate the effect of desert reclamation and following long-term conventional cultivation on the CEC and BS%. For the study, we investigated the CEC and exchangeable bases (ExBas) content in oasis farmlands along a chronosequence (0–100 years) of cultivation in arid region and identified the key factors affecting CEC and BS%. The results showed that soil CEC and ExBas significantly increased after desert reclamation, whereas the BS% dramatically decreased. However, all these changes were alleviated with the conventional cultivation age. Regression analysis showed that soil CEC, ExBas, and BS% all exponentially changed with cultivation years. Based on our findings, CEC and ExBas were closely related to soil particle size composition, total nitrogen (TN), soil organic matter (SOM) and soil water content (SWC). The multiple stepwise regression further indicated that the changes in CEC and ExBas after reclamation mainly depended on the silt content, SWC, SOM, and TN. Our findings highlight that although desert reclamation increases soil CEC and ExBas in arid area, this effect tends to disappear after about 100 years of conventional cultivation, and meanwhile, the decline in BS% due to increased acids should also be noted.

Long-term conventional cultivation after desert reclamation is not conducive to the improvement of soil carbon pool and nutrient stocks, a case study from northwest China

Reclamation in desert-oasis areas is effective for improving land productivity and ensuring food supply. However, the understanding of the sustainable productivity of soils under long-term conventional cultivation after desert reclamation is still poor. This study was conducted to determine soil structural properties, organic carbon stocks (SOCS) and nutrient stocks under four desert reclamation ages (0, 30, 60, and 100) in the arid region of northwest China, and evaluate the influence of long-term conventional cultivation on desert soil quality. The results indicated that soil structural stability index (SI) in topsoil improved after desert reclamation, but showed a slight downward trend after 60 years of cultivation, and farmland soil in the study area was still at serious risk of degradation (SI ≤ 5 %) overall. SOCS were enlarged by 4.2 times after desert reclamation, and nitrogen stocks (NS) and phosphorus stocks (PS) were increased by 1.2–6.5 times. However, the regression analysis showed that SOCS and NS in 0–40 cm soil layer and PS in topsoil stopped increasing after about 60-year conventional cultivation. Soil stoichiometry, pH and texture were the key factors affecting SOCS, NS and PS in oasis farmlands. In summary, our study emphasized that soil quality in arid areas was greatly improved after desert reclamation, however, long-term conventional agriculture management measures limited this improvement. Therefore, long-term conventional management of agricultural land in arid areas should introduce appropriate conservation measures to achieve sustainable soil productivity.

Soil microbial biomass and community structure in response to agricultural use of deserts across northern China

Although desert reclamation efforts have been used for increased crop production, their impacts on the structure of soil microbial communities remain largely understudied. Here, six adjacent pairs of different native desert and newly reclaimed cropland soils across a 3300 km transect in northern China were selected to address how microbial biomass, community composition, biogeographic pattern and the relative importance of ecological processes responded to agricultural reclamation using qPCR and high-throughput amplicon sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA and fungal ITS genes. Agricultural intensification generally increased bacterial and fungal biomasses compared to undisturbed desert soils, while most microbial α-diversities were not significantly changed across these sampling sites. The relative abundances of some dominant microbial phyla and families significantly changed in response to agricultural intensification, which was site-dependent. Bacterial and fungal communities showed similar biogeographic patterns predominantly dominated by community turnover rather than nestedness for both desert and cropland soils, while agricultural intensification made bacterial community compositions more dissimilar. Deterministic process and stochastic process dominated bacterial and fungal community assembly in both desert and cropland soils, respectively. Agricultural intensification slightly reduced the relative importance of deterministic process for bacterial community assembly, while it conversely increased the relative importance of deterministic process to fungal community assembly by shifting the contributions of different assembly components. These results suggest that short-term land-use transformation from native deserts to croplands impact desert soil microbial community structure by making bacterial community more stochastic and fungal community more deterministic.

Microbial community variation and its relationship with soil carbon accumulation during long-term oasis formation

The conversion of desert to farmland may change not only surface soils but also deeper soils due to massive irrigation and fertilization. However, limited information exists on the response of microorganisms throughout the soil profile to long-term crop development in desert regions. The shifts in the microbial community were investigated in relation to soil depth (0–2 m) and years of reclamation, as well as their relationship to soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics in an irrigated arid area of northwest China. Oasis farmlands cultivated for 3, 5, 10, 20, 50, and > 100 years were compared with adjacent deserts. Total phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs), bacterial PLFAs, and microbial biomass and activity within the whole profile increased from the beginning of farming and peaked at 20 years post-reclamation. Fungal and actinomycete PLFAs decreased in the beginning of reclamation but increased after 10 years and peaked at 20 years. Microbial community composition was dynamic within the first 10 years of reclamation and tended to become stable thereafter. During oasis formation, the carbon to nitrogen ratio of microbial biomass decreased from 9.0–10.5 to 7.2–8.0; the fungi to bacteria ratio decreased from 0.3–0.5 to 0.2–0.3, and the gram-positive to gram-negative bacteria ratio (GP:GN) increased from 0.3–0.4 to 0.4–0.6. Increases in microbial abundance and shifts in community structure were positively correlated with SOC accumulation. Redundancy analysis indicated that microbial changes were closely associated with increased soil moisture and nutrients and decreased salinity and pH. We believe the predominant factor driving microbial community shifts and soil carbon accumulation is the increased input of plant residue due to enhanced water and nitrogen availability after desert reclamation. This study emphasizes the significance of the microbial changes and the close association between increased GP:GN and SOC accumulation during oasis formation, especially in deeper soils (0.6–2.0 m).

Salinization of groundwater under desert reclamation stress at Qena region, Egypt

The scarcity of water resources with increasing demand made the evaluation of groundwater quality an urgent matter. Thus statistical analyses and hydrochemical models were conducted on 111 wells sampled from Pleistocene aquifer at Qena Governorate. Multivariate statistics revealed mixed processes affecting groundwater chemistry. Such processes expressed in terms of four rotated factors; these are mineralization (salinization), anthropogenic surface recharge, dissolution of ferromagnesian minerals, and oxidation factor. Aquifer salinization is evidenced by a lateral change in the basic hydrochemical characteristics from low mineralized Ca–HCO3, Mg–HCO3, and Na–HCO3 water types to highly mineralized Ca–Cl, Mg–Cl, and Na–Cl facies. Chloride-water species are associated with high-impact areas of chloride-rich sediments (dissolution of overlain saline sediments and marine Pliocene clay underneath). Piper diagram indicates desert wells are dominantly affected by saltwater intrusion from deep aquifers along fault planes under over-pumping. On other hand, shallow wells are the most affected by surface activities. Likewise, wells located in the vicinity of the industrial zone and sites of wastewater disposal. This raises questions about desert reclamation strategy and its impact on groundwater quality; hence this approach can be used as a basic tool for reviewing desert reclamation management strategies. CapsuleQuaternary freshwater aquifer in Egypt was exposed to salinization under desert reclamation, via dissolution of marine deposits and intrusion from deeper aquifers.

Integrating Biophysical and Sociocultural Methods for Identifying the Relationships between Ecosystem Services and Land Use Change: Insights from an Oasis Area

Identifying the relationships between ecosystem services (ESs) and land use change is crucial for ES management and sustainable regional development. The Manas region in China has witnessed dramatic reclamation activities in its desert areas that resulted in ecological problems. The changes in eight ESs, including crop production (CP), livestock production (LP), soil conservation (SC), water yield (WY), sand fixation (SF), carbon sequestration (CS), habitat quality (HQ), and nature landscape recreation (NLR), were investigated by using biophysical and questionnaire methods. At the regional scale, provisioning services (i.e., CP and LP) showed some performance improvements, whereas most of the regulating services (i.e., WY, CS, and HQ) along with NLR showed a performance decline. Five ES bundles—Upper Mountain, Foothill, Oasis, Oasis–Desert Transition, and Desert bundle—were identified at the township scale via k-means clustering. From 2000 to 2015, the Oasis bundle sprawled as a result of oasisization, whereas the Oasis–Desert Transition and Foothill bundles decreased. We performed a questionnaire survey and a statistical analysis to identify the causes behind the performance improvement/decline of these ESs and found that the land use changes in the Manas region had a significant impact on these services. More than 50% of the survey respondents identified land use changes as the primary driver of the changes in some ESs (i.e., CP, CS, HQ, and NLR). In the correlation and partial correlation analyses, oasisization was significantly and positively correlated with CP but was negatively correlated with WY, CS, HQ, and NLR. We enhanced the reliability of our conclusions by integrating biophysical and sociocultural methods into our investigation of ES and land use change. In view of the huge losses in regulating and cultural services, the Manas region should limit its desert reclamation activities to control the expansion of its oasis and to improve the quality of its cropland. Our results can help formulate effective ES management and land use decisions in the Manas region or similar areas.

Modeling Urban Encroachment on the Agricultural Land of the Eastern Nile Delta Using Remote Sensing and a GIS-Based Markov Chain Model

Historically, the Nile Delta has played an integral part in Egyptian civilization, as its fertile soils have been cultivated for centuries. The region offers a lush oasis among the expansive arid climate of Northern Africa; however, in recent decades, many anthropogenic changes to the environment have jeopardized Egypt’s agricultural productivity. Political instability and lack of sufficient regulations regarding urban growth and encroachment have put agricultural land in the area at risk. Advanced geospatial techniques were used to assess the rate at which urban areas are increasing within the region. A hybrid classification of Landsat satellite imagery for the eastern sector of the Nile Delta, between the years 1988 and 2017, was conducted to map major land-use and land-cover (LULC) classes. The statistical change analysis revealed that urban areas increased by 222.5% over the study period (29 years). Results indicated that urban areas are encroaching mainly on established agricultural lands within the Nile Delta. Most of the change has occurred within the past nine years, where approximately 235.60 km2 of the cultivated lands were transitioned to urban. Nonetheless, at the eastern delta flank, which is bordered by desert, analysis indicated that agricultural lands have experienced a considerable growth throughout the study period due to a major desert reclamation effort. Areas most at risk from future urban expansion were identified. A simulation of future urban expansion, using a Markov Chain algorithm, indicated that the extent to which urban area is simulated to grow in the region is 16.67% (277.3 km2) and 37.82% (843 km2) by the year 2026, and 2050, respectively. The methods used in this study are useful in assessing the rate of urban encroachment on agricultural lands and can be applied to similar at-risk areas in the regions if appropriate site-specific modifications are considered.

Economic Analysis of the Using of Traditional Fuel and Solar Energy to Power Irrigation Pumps in Egypt

Water requirements in Egypt are growing due to population rise, improving living standard, and agriculture expansion. Nowadays, the agricultural sector represents the largest amount of the total water consumption in Egypt. In addition, the Egyptian government goal is to reclaim - as much - land in the desert to meet the food needs. In Egypt, most of electric energy depends on diesel powered generators; furthermore, desert areas are far away from the electric grids. These are the current considerable problems to reclaim desert in Egypt. On the other hand, delivering and using diesel is facing different economic and environmental risks due to its raising price as well as air pollution and global warming. Sustainable development is a challenge of Egyptian government; therefore, using solar energy applications can serve the unique needs of Egyptians who inhabit in desert area. One of these applications is the “off-grid solar water pumps” that discharge underground water from deep wells for agricultural uses. In this paper an economic study is presented to compare between using pumping system powered by traditional fossil fuel and another system powered by solar energy generated from PV panels to operate a farm in the desert fringes. The water pumping system is designed to irrigate a farm of 10 feddans. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended to use solar energy in desert reclamation due to its long run efficiency, environment conservation, and lower total life cycle cost.

Plantation Development in the Turkana Basin: The Making of a New Desert?

Since the early 20th century, “desert reclamation” has been synonymous with large-scale waterworks and irrigation. These techniques have made it possible to produce abundant crops in arid or semi-arid environments. The costs have often been externalized, with increased environmental productivity in the new croplands counterbalanced by increased aridity elsewhere. In this paper I consider whose interests are served by such projects, and what kinds of social constructions of the natural and human environment make them possible. I focus on the Turkana basin, a watershed spanning the Ethiopian and Kenyan borders, where large dams and irrigation projects are currently being established with the goal of producing cash crops and hydro-electricity. In the narratives of the projects’ proponents, the schemes are represented as part of a tradition of development stretching back to the American West. In the discourse of critics, the Aral Sea of Central Asia is frequently invoked. Considering Turkana in relation to these cases sheds light on the political and ecological gambits involved in desert reclamation, and helps us to understand the costs and benefits of such projects.

Activated Carbon Monolith Derived from Amygdalus Pedunculata Shell and Polyacrylonitrile for Supercapacitors

Abstract Activated carbon monolith (ACM) was obtained from Amygdalus pedunculata shell (APS) and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) via a template-free approach. APS was uniformly distributed into the monolith matrix and an interconnected network was fully established. The present study greatly promotes the close contact between desert reclamation and green energy storage.

Hierarchical Porous Carbon from Greening Plant Shell for Electric Double-Layer Capacitor Application

Abstract Amygdalus pedunculata is expected to be a good candidate plant for desert reclamation (“greening”) since it has notable tolerance to cold and drought and can grow in a wide range of area with different soil types and moisture contents. In this study, hierarchical porous activated carbon (AC) with high surface area and large mesoporous volume was developed from Amygdalus pedunculata shell (APS) for an electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC) application. The AC activated at 900 °C by K2CO3 possessed a highly developed hierarchical porosity network of a coexistence of micropores and mesopores. The AC with the specific surface area of 2030 m2 g−1 and mesopore percentage of 82% showed superior capacitive performance in 20 wt % H2SO4 electrolyte using a bipolar cell by means of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic charge–discharge (GC) measurements. A maximum capacity of 210 F g−1 was achieved at current density of 0.05 A g−1 from the AC prepared from APS and K2CO3 with the mixed weight ratio of 2:3 under the activation conditions of 900 °C and 60 min. The present APS-derived AC is a promising electrode material from green raw materials for EDLCs.

مقارنة تطبیقیة بیئیة بین مدینة مصدر(ابو ظبى) و the gate (القاهرة)

Planning new urban communities & Cities need an extensive understanding for the new environment nature and for the social and economic systems in terms of scientific and technological progress. Desert reclamation will not be useful without a sustainable urban design that is based on the principles of green architecture. Here will be two case studies of residential cities, one of them is national and the other is international, both share common construction time plan, style and the sustainable olutions. The case studies offer a comparison between the environmental and sustainable approaches of The Gate project (Nasr city – Cairo) and The Masdar City (Abu Dhabi) and results were as following … From Results, we found that some Environmental standards were applied on those two case studies and other standards were not applied enough. Thus, we recommend planners and designers to apply the principles of green architecture to achieve an environmental balance in the new residential communities whether in or outside cities in order to achieve a sustainable urbanism.

Differential expression of Lead accumulation during two growing seasons by desert shrub Acacia victoriae L.

In desert reclamation strainer plants can be used for improvement and decrease pollution of soil and water. This technology can be used to remove both inorganic and organic contaminants in soil. In this study, one year old Acacia victoriae seedlings were exposed to Pb (NO3)2 in 5 different concentrations; 0, 50, 250, 500 and 1000 mg Pb L-1 for 45 days in two growing seasons. Subsequently, the heavy metal concentrations were measured in different plant tissues by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) for two growing periods. In addition, some physiological and morphological parameters (root and plant length, root diameter, leave area, dry weight, chlorophyll a, band total) were measured. Based on the results, the visible toxicity symptoms (chlorosis and necrosis) appeared only to the highest concentration (1000 mg Pb L−1) in both growing seasons. The results also showed that application highest concentration of Pbreduced the physiological and morphological parameters as compared to the control seedlings. The accumulation of Pbwas influenced by the Pbconcentration in the growth medium and the growing seasons as well. With respect to the more accumulation of Pbin the roots tissues than aboveground tissues, indicating A.victoriae as a good option for phytostabilization of Pbcontaminated soils. Furthermore if A.victoriae is planted for Pb phytoextraction, therefore the harvest of aboveground should be done at the fall season. Meanwhile concentrations of Pb in the aboveground parts were more than roots at the fall season. In conclusion A.victoriae a native to the arid zone appeared to be hyper tolerate, accumulate high concentrations of Pb and it could be regarded as a potential accumulator. In addition A.victoriae have high application value in repairing Pb contaminated soils and is suitable and effective choice to be used as a tool of phytoremediation in industrial sites of the arid zones. Our findings suggest that A.victoriae has the advantages of high capacity for adaptation to poor, easy cultivation, deep root system, high tolerance to the drought, saline soils and Pb and could use as candidate plant for environmetals monitoring.

Water sources for cyanobacteria below desert rocks in the Negev Desert determined by conductivity

We present year round meteorological and conductivity measurements of colonized hypolithic rocks in the Arava Valley, Negev Desert, Israel. The data indicate that while dew is common in the Negev it is not an important source of moisture for hypolithic organisms at this site. The dominance of cyanobacteria in the hypolithic community is consistent with predictions that cyanobacteria are confined to habitats supplied by rain. To monitor the presence of liquid water under the small Negev rocks we developed and tested a simple field conductivity system based on two wires placed about 0.5 cm apart. Based on 21 replicates recorded for one year in the Negev we conclude that in natural rains (0.25 mm to 6 mm) the variability between sensor readings is between 20 and 60% decreasing with increasing rain amount. We conclude that the simple small electrical conductivity system described here can be used effectively to monitor liquid water levels in lithic habitats. However, the natural variability of these sensors indicates that several replicates should be deployed. The results and method presented have use in arid desert reclamation programs.

РОЛЬ Н. И. ВАВИЛОВА И УЧЕНЫХ ВИР В ОСВОЕНИИ ПУСТЫНЬ

The article is devoted to the origins of the fight against desert expansion in Russia and former Soviet Republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, and N. I. Vavilov’s plans to solve the complex problems of desert and semi-desert reclamation in the areas of the USSR; afforestation, melioration and climatic studies; problems of southern industrial crops; formation of sustainable forage crop cultivation for livestock, and establishment of oases. The research on this topic was conducted by the Repetek Sand Desert Station (run by VIR from 1925 to 1941) with a supporting site in the Kara-Bogaz-Gol, the Aral Experimental Station (organized in 1933), the Turkmen Research Station of VIR in Kara-Kala (established in 1927), the Azerbaij ani branch VIR on the Apsheron Peninsula (organized in 1926). Investigations of the desert were started by the Repetek Sand Desert Station, the only one in the world involved in the stationary study of sands. Its staff examined the typology of sands in the southeastern Karakum, the nature of their movement, conducted edaphic, botanical and hydrological studies in the area of construction of the Karakum Channel. They were the first in the world to suggest using phytomelioration by psammophytes of moving sands, conducted successful experiments in the introduction of black saxaul, calligonum and sandy acacia into cultivation and discovered the wet condensation subsurface horizon creating reserves of moisture in the sand dunes. In 1932, when the Bureau of Deserts was founded, its coordination plan served as the foundation for the deployment of investigations throughout sands of Russia and Central Asian Republics. Huge work was carried out on integrated geobotanical, geological, hydrological studies of soil and vegetation of deserts and semi-deserts (Astrakhan, Pridon, Terek-Kuma, Uilskie, Naryn sands, the Karakum, Kyzylkum, Betpakdala, Mangyshlak, Aral Sea region, Muyunkum, etc.), as well as evaluation of their suitability for rainfed and irrigated agriculture, productivity of natural pastures, hayfields, saxaul forests. Valuable food, fodder and technical plants were studied. Scientists of the Aral Experimental Station received the State Prize for the development of rainfed, irrigated and trench cultivation of cereals, forages, vegetables, fruits and ornamental crops and for making oases in a desert environment. They selected, bred, propagated and introduced into the agriculture of Kazakhstan more than 40 varieties of different agricultural crops. Development and implementation of the technology for consolidation and afforestation of sands in the southeast and east of the European part of the country and development of the first cultivar of saxaul Priaralskiy 1 also won the State Prize. After the transfer of the Aral Experimental Station under the jurisdiction of the Republic of Kazakhstan, expeditions collecting desert plant genetic resources, their study and building up a collection of worldwide genetic resources of desert crops were continued. At the present level, to assess salt tolerance of alfalfa transcriptome analysis was applied. Employees of the Department of Perennial Forage Crop Genetic Resources of VIR took part in the mapping of arid areas and sustainable fodder plant distribution for the Internet publication “Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries Economic Plants and their Diseases, Pests and Weeds.” On the basis of the world collection of desert agricultural cultivars breeders of the Aral Experimental Station, as well as the institutions of the country and some foreign countries developed numerous varieties.

A theoretical approach to the design of sustainable dwellings in hot dry zones: A Toshka case study

The Toshka project is a mega-project undertaken by the Egyptian Government. It arose as part of a plan to increase the amount of inhabited land in Egypt from 5% to 25%. Toshka is a desert region located in the southeast of Egypt’s Western Desert and lies between the Tropic of Cancer (22.00°N and 24.00°N), and longitudes (31.00°E and 32.00°E). An extensive desert reclamation project is being implemented in this region using water from the Nile. Designing dwellings is one of the challenges that architects face in this region. Toshka is currently considered uninhabited and has a hot, dry climate. Furthermore, seismically active faults lie near Toshka. It also expected that the majority of settlers will be low income citizens. This paper proposes a theoretical approach to designing desert dwellings that accommodates the hot, dry climate and secures the dwelling against seismic waves by incorporating passive elements. The results showed that underground construction using a circular plan and the use of wind catchers, evaporation, vegetal roofing and sunken courtyards can provide an acceptable, sustainable design for housing in the Western Desert.

Feeding and healing the world: through regenerative agriculture and permaculture.

The study of soil is a mature science, whereas related practical methods of regenerative agriculture and permaculture are not. However, despite a paucity of detailed peer reviewed research published on these topics, there is overwhelming evidence both that the methods work and they may offer the means to address a number of prevailing environmental challenges, e.g. peak oil, climate change, carbon capture, unsustainable agriculture and food shortages, peak phosphorus (phosphate), water shortages, environmental pollution, desert reclamation, and soil degradation. What is lacking is a proper scientific study, made in hand with actual development projects. By elucidating the scientific basis of these remarkable phenomena, we may obtain the means for solving some of the otherwise insurmountable problems confronting humanity, simply by observing, and working with, the patterns and forces of nature. This article is intended as a call to arms to make serious investment in researching and actualising these methods on a global scale. Despite claims that peak oil is no longer a threat because vast resources of gas and shale oil (tight oil) can now be recovered by fracking (hydraulic fracturing) combined with horizontal drilling, the reality is that proven actual reserves are only adequate to delay the peak by a few years. Furthermore, because of the rapid depletion rates of flow from gas wells and oil wells that are accessed by fracking, it will be necessary to drill continuously and relentlessly to maintain output, and there are material limits of equipment, technology and trained personnel to do this. Moreover, to make any sensible difference to the liquid fuel crisis, which is the most immediate consequence of peak oil, it would be necessary to convert the worlds one billion vehicles to run on natural gas rather than liquid fuels refined from crude oil, and this would take some considerable time and effort. The loss of widespread personalised transportation is thus inevitable and imminent, meaning a loss of globalised civilisation and a mandatory return to living in smaller localised communities. Permaculture and regenerative agriculture offer potentially the means to provide food and materials on the small scale, and address the wider issues of carbon emissions, and resource shortages. Since over half the World's population lives in cities, it seems likely that strengthening the resilience of these environments, using urban permaculture, may be a crucial strategy in achieving a measured descent in our use of energy and other resources, rather than an abrupt collapse of civilization.

Desert reclamation, a management system for sustainable urban expansion

Urbanisation is occurring at an unprecedented scale worldwide, with developing countries claiming the biggest share. Developing countries are increasingly facing enormous pressures to manage their urban and rural areas challenged by limited resources, exploding numbers of population and rising expectations for a higher quality of life. Sustainability is central to the management of existing and newly developed areas. It can offer a comprehensive discourse for understanding the functioning of cities and their hinterlands, with an aim to achieve a balance between environmental, economic and social issues for current and future generations. Managing the urbanization of newly developed areas requires innovative thinking and an ability to predict and evaluate the impacts of possible futures. As the new map of Egypt is redrawn and much hope lies on the development of its deserts constituting 95% of the total land area, an efficient process of directing and facilitating urban development is urgently required. This paper presents an Urban Sustainable Management System (USMS) using the process of Integrated Assessment to assess three possible development scenarios based on different economic bases for new developments on desert reclaimed land. Indicators of a quantitative and qualitative nature are used to describe environmental, social and economic capitals of three scenarios as well as setting targets towards the aim of sustainability. Pressure points hindering the sustainable development of reclaimed land are drawn under the three different scenarios. The USMS provides an urban management system that overcomes difficulties of data availability, combines interdisciplinary knowledge and deals with uncertainties of future developments; struggles decisionmakers confront across the divide but more so in developing countries.