Crater Depth Research Articles

3D digital holography for measuring particle impact crater morphology and in-situ analysis of oxidation healing on steel surfaces

Deformation and erosion of steel due to particle impacts in high-temperature environments are common issues in industrial applications. Under high-temperature conditions, an oxide layer forms that affects the deformation and erosion of the steel surface following particle impacts. Studying the interaction mechanism of oxidation and deformation (erosion) is of considerable significance. Traditional research methods primarily involve ex-situ measurements on samples post-erosion and oxidation, which cannot capture the morphological changes of the steel surface immediately following particle impact. Utilizing 3D digital holography (DH) technology, this paper develops a measurement system to investigate the surface morphological changes in steel induced by single particle impacts. We utilized this experimental system to measure the impact crater morphology of 500 μm zirconia particles impacting Q690 steel sheets. Our findings indicate that Hertzian ring cracks formation is significantly affected by heating temperature and impact angle. Notably, oxide layer peeling and erosion occurred at an impact angle of 30°. Additionally, impact crater depths at a 90° angle and impact speeds ranging from 1 to 20 m/s varied between 0.66 and 4.25 μm, with crater depths showing a correlation to the thickness of the oxide layer. Concurrently, in-situ measurements of the impact crater healing process during heating revealed that the crater formed at a 30° impact angle, which had numerous microcracks, exhibited significantly better healing compared to the crater formed at a 90° impact angle. The thickening process of the oxide layer were also analyzed, leading to the derivation of the oxide layer growth kinetic equation based on the measurement data: . This study is the first to use DH technology to measure the surface morphology of steel and to conduct in-situ analysis of the oxide layer thickening process following particle impact and during heating. This approach provides a novel perspective for understanding the erosion-oxidation interaction mechanism.

Effect of laser ablation on the conductivity and laser-induced damage threshold of fused silica components

When irradiated by high-power lasers, fused silica optical component can be ablated, which seriously affects their laser-conducing capability and service life. Numerical simulations have been applied to investigate the ablation process, laser-induced damage threshold (LIDT), and propagation loss of fused silica optical component. The depth of the ablation crater increases linearly with the duration of irradiation, while the rate of development in the width of the ablation crater gradually decreases. The LIDT of the front surface of the fused silica optical component will significantly decrease, while the propagation loss of the fused silica component will have a considerable increase when the front surface of fused silica is damaged under laser irradiation. The propagation loss and the LIDT of the fused silica’s front surface are 26.49, 21.19, 20.60, 16.83, and 16.41[Formula: see text]GW/cm2 and 0.41, 1.02, 2.24, 3.46, and 5.31[Formula: see text]dB, respectively, after 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]s of ablation. This work provides novel opportunities for investigating the intrinsic mechanism of laser-induced damage to fused silica, and offers guidance for the future development of fused silica optical elements that are highly resistant to laser-induced damage.

Discrete element model of low-velocity projectile penetration and impact crater on granular bed

The present study investigates the low-velocity impacts of a spherical projectile into a bed of spherical particles using Discrete Element Method (DEM) simulations and laboratory experiments. The findings reveal intricate forces and energy transformations, indicating the phenomena leading to projectile impact, penetration, cessation, and crater formation. The DEM result indicates that the penetration stopping time of the projectile is not influenced by impact velocity. Further, simulations show that projectile penetration depth correlates with 1/2.7 power of total impact height, while crater diameter and depth scale with 1/4.32 power of nondimensional impact energy. The shape of the resulting crater appears independent of impact velocity and the maximum diameter of the fluidized region varies with the 1/2.68 power of impact velocity. Experimental validation confirms the accuracy of predicted penetration depths and crater diameters, enhancing confidence in DEM simulations. These findings extend scaling laws and reveal the influence of larger particles on low-velocity impact dynamics, addressing unexplored aspects of granular cratering.

JunoPerijove 34: Update Ganymede 3D-control network and new DEMs study

During the Juno Perijove 34 the JunoCam acquired four RGB images of Ganymede. These images and updated SPICE kernel for spacecraft's trajectories were used to refine previous 3D-control point network (CPN). As a result, 4954 control points were measured 22,098 times with a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 16 observations per point, based on the 302 best available images from all missions (Voyagers, Galileo and Juno). After adjustment more than 86% of points have accuracy better than 3 km (>97% - better than 5 km). A new libration value for Ganymede 18ʺ is obtained. This updated CPN was used for compiling a new Ganymede global mosaic to support the planning of observations within the JUICE mission. New detailed local DEMs were obtained by stereovectorization for Enki Catena and Tros crater regions. In the Enki chain, the ratio d/D of the depth of craters to their diameter ranges from 0.049 to 0.089 and correlates with the area types (dark or light).

Process simulation and optimization of process parameters of single-pulse femtosecond laser processing Invar 36 alloy

Invar 36 alloy has an extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion and is suitable for preparing a fine metal mask (FMM) for the evaporation of silicon-based organic light emitting display microdisplays. The higher the resolution and the greater the number of pixels, the finer and more delicate the holes required. Femtosecond laser processing technology is an effective technical means for processing Invar 36 alloy FMM due to its characteristics of extremely short pulse width, extremely high pulse energy density, smaller heat-affected zone, and more regular machining edges. The femtosecond laser processing parameters directly affect temperature distribution and then affect the manufacturing quality and efficiency of Invar 36 alloy FMM. At present, femtosecond laser processing of Invar 36 alloy FMM is still in the exploration stage, and the processing mechanism and technology are not clear. In this paper, a simulation model of single-pulse femtosecond laser processing Invar 36 alloy is established based on the two-temperature equation. By comparing the ablation morphology of the simulation output with the experimental measurement results, the validity of the simulation model is verified and the processing mechanism is preliminarily explored. Based on the simulation model, the effects of femtosecond laser energy density, pulse duration, and spot diameter on the electron temperature field, lattice temperature field, and ablation morphology of the craters are explored. The process window of laser processing parameters is determined. A full-factor test is conducted. Take the minimum length of the heat-affected zone, the maximum depth of the ablation crater, and the minimum diameter of the ablation crater as three optimization objectives and obtain Pareto optimal solutions based on genetic algorithm. The optimization of single-pulse femtosecond laser drilling Invar 36 alloy is realized.

Research on the anti-ablation performance of TiC particle reinforced aluminum matrix composite coating

During the electromagnetic rail launching process, the severe ablation of the armature caused by the arc can easily lead to launch failure. Therefore, it is necessary to study methods of enhancing the anti-ablation property of the armature. One effective method is to prepare metal-ceramic composite coating on the surface of aluminium alloy armature. This paper conducts molecular dynamics simulation on the ablation protection effect of TiC particle reinforced aluminum matrix composite coatings on the aluminum armature substrate. By applying a surface Gaussian heat source to simulate the arc ablation effect, the micro-enhancement mechanism of TiC particles is analyzed through the depth of ablation craters, material mass loss, and the evolution of TiC particle morphology. The results show that the degree of material ablation intensifies with the increase of arc discharge power. The composite coating helps to improve the anti-ablation performance of the armature, and the anti-ablation performance first increases and then decreases with the increase of TiC mass fraction. The results can provide a theoretical foundation and technical support for optimizing design of anti-ablation performance of armature materials.

Model testing of dynamic response of loess to impact load from helicopter landing

ABSTRACT To investigate the dynamic behaviour of loess under the impact loads of two tyres attached to a helicopter’s landing gear, a loading device capable of simultaneously applying dual impact loads was designed. A series of physical model tests, varying in impact energy and water content of the loess samples, were conducted. The study explored the settlement pattern, vertical dynamic stress distribution, and the effects of impact energy and water content. Results revealed that settlement in the shallow layer exhibits a characteristic W-shape, while the vertical dynamic stress time curve displays a single peak pulse. Settlement and vertical dynamic stress increase with higher impact energy. Increasing the water content of the loess sample results in greater settlement but lower vertical dynamic stress. For the simulated helicopter, when the tyre impact energy increases from 23.8 to 60.8 kJ, the resultant crater depth in loess with a moisture content of 16% increases from 7.6 to 18.1 cm, an increase of 11.5 cm. The peak vertical dynamic stress at a depth of 10 cm along the centerline of the tamper increases from 590.98 to 1449.4 kPa, more than doubling. These findings are valuable for the design of landing sites and landing gear systems.

Splashing impact of a falling liquid drop

The splashing phenomenon associated with the impact of a liquid drop on a liquid pool is investigated in this study using the volume of fluid method. The different outcomes of this phenomena largely depend on the height (/depth) of a liquid pool and the impinging drop velocity. The impingement angle, drop shape, fluid properties, and other non-isothermal effects also play a role, but we have eliminated those dependencies by considering no variation in these parameters. The different phenomena that are observed when a drop impacts a liquid pool are controlled by (i) crater depth and wave-swell (rim of the crater) expansion, (ii) wave-swell retraction followed by crater side retraction, and (iii) crater base retraction. During splashing, a deep crater is produced in the receiving liquid after the drop impact. At its rim, a crown-like cylindrical liquid film is ejected out of the crater. Small droplets are normally shed from this rim. It is seen that the depth of the pool has dramatic effects on the dynamics of the crown formed during splashing. When observed even more comprehensively, the physical attributes of the crown, such as crown height and crown radius, are found to strongly relate to the velocity of the falling drop. Finally, we try to demarcate the regions of splashing with and without the formation of secondary droplets on the regime map of Weber number–dimensionless pool depth.

Rapid Impact Crater Relaxation Caused by an Insulating Methane Clathrate Crust on Titan

Titan’s impact craters are hundreds of meters shallower than expected, compared to similar-sized craters on Ganymede. Only 90 crater candidates have been identified, the majority of which have low certainty of an impact origin. Many processes have been suggested to shallow, modify, and remove Titan’s craters, including fluvial erosion by liquid from rainfall, aeolian sand infill, and topographic relaxation induced by insulating sand infill. Here we propose an additional mechanism: topographic relaxation due to an insulating methane clathrate crustal layer in Titan’s upper ice shell. We use finite element modeling to test whether a clathrate crust 5, 10, 15, or 20 km thick could warm the ice shell and relax craters to their currently observed depths or remove them completely. We model the viscoelastic evolution of crater diameters 120, 100, 85, and 40 km, with two initial depths based on depth−diameter trends of Ganymede’s craters. We find that all clathrate crustal thicknesses result in rapid topographic relaxation, despite Titan’s cold surface temperature. The 5 km thick clathrate crust can reproduce nearly all of the observed shallow depths, many in under 1000 yr. A 10 km thick crust can reproduce the observed depths of the larger craters over geologic timescales. If relaxation is the primary cause of the shallow craters, then the clathrate thickness is likely 5–10 km thick. Topographic relaxation alone cannot remove craters; crater rims and flexural moats remain. To completely remove craters and reproduce the observed biased crater distribution, multiple modification processes must act together.

Response of a Coral Reef Sand Foundation Densified through the Dynamic Compaction Method

Dynamic compaction is a method of ground reinforcement that uses the huge impact energy of a free-falling hammer to compact the soil. This study presents a DC method for strengthening coral reef foundations in the reclamation area of remote sea islands. Pilot tests were performed to obtain the design parameters before official DC operation. The standard penetration test (SPT), shallow plate-load test (PLT), and deformation investigation were conducted in two improvement regions (A1 and A2) with varying tamping energies. During the deformation test, the depth of the tamping crater for the first two points’ tamping and the third full tamping was observed at two distinct sites. The allowable ground bearing capacity at two disparate field sites was at least 360 kPa. The reinforcement depths were 3.5 and 3.2 m in the A1 and A2 zones, respectively. The DC process was numerically analyzed by the two-dimensional particle flow code, PFC2D. It indicated that the reinforcement effect and effective reinforcement depth were consistent with the field data. The coral sand particles at the bottom of the crater were primarily broken down in the initial stage, and the particle-crushing zone gradually developed toward both sides of the crater. The force chain developed similarly at the three tamping energies (800, 1500, and 2000 kJ), and the impact stress wave propagated along the sand particles primarily in the vertical direction.

Comparative evaluation of solid particle erosion resistance in milled carbon fiber‐reinforced basalt fiber epoxy composites: Impact of abrasive shape variations

AbstractThe solid particle erosive wear performance of basalt fiber‐reinforced epoxy composites with the incorporation of different percentages of milled carbon fiber fillers (0–10 wt%) is evaluated under various abrasive materials (garnet and ceramic beads) and impingement angles (30° and 90°). Erosion tests have been carried out following ASTM G76 standards using a factorial design method. The data indicate that the erosion rates, crater depths, and areas of craters are all strongly dependent on erodent material type and milled carbon fiber filler ratio. Compared to ceramic beads, garnet abrasives caused severe erosion, with erosion rates reaching approximately 500 mg/g at a 90° impingement angle without milled carbon fiber fillers. Erosion by both abrasives was significantly reduced by the introduction of milled carbon fiber fillers into the basalt fiber composites, with the erosion rate decreasing to around 100 mg/g with 3 wt% milled carbon fiber fillers. The maximum crater depth was also influenced; garnet abrasives produced craters as deep as 1000 μm without fillers at 90°, which was reduced to 451 μm with 3 wt% milled carbon fiber fillers when ceramic beads were used. Of the three factors for the erosion rate and crater depth, inorganic erodent material and ratio of carbon fiber filler were prominent, but the impingement angle effect was much smaller. Among the three factors for the erosion rate and crater depth, erodent material and carbon fiber filler ratio were prominent, while the impingement angle effect was significantly less.Highlights The garnet abrasives cause more severe erosion than ceramic beads at 90°. Composites exhibit optimal erosion resistance with 3–5 wt% milled carbon fiber fillers. Filler ratio and erodent material type significantly impact erosion rates and depths. Factors affecting wear performance identified using factorial design and ANOVA.

Case study of a cluster of simple and complex monogenetic volcanoes in the north‐east part of the Michoacan–Guanajuato Volcanic Field, Central Mexico: Nomenclature implications

With the advent of new terminologies to categorize and characterize the simple and complex monogenetic volcanoes, also came the semantic issues, which caused a predicament for the usage of terms like simple, complex, polycyclic, polymagmatic, complex monogenetic volcanoes with polygenetic inheritance. To analyse and validate this nomenclature, we studied an overlapping volcanic structure located south of the present‐day town of Irapuato, Central Mexico, that appears to be a monogenetic complex at first sight. Field observations, tephra stratigraphy, petrography and geochemistry of the tephra deposits confirms that the structure is in fact a cluster of three simple (San Joaquin tuff ring and two scoria mounds) and one complex, polycyclic, polymagmatic (La Sanabria‐San Roque tuff ring) monogenetic volcanoes formed by independent events, governed by distinct conduits and magma bodies of different origin (subduction‐related, OIB and E‐MORB origin) and separated by different tephra sequences of dissimilar components and depositional characteristics. We estimate the magma volumes (using the juvenile content and their vesicularity percentage) to be at 0.40–1.31 × 108, 0.25 × 108 and 0.42–0.90 × 108 m3 for San Joaquin, La Sanabria and San Roque, reckoning an eruption duration of 77 and 48 and 81 days, respectively (considering an average eruption rate of 6 m3/s from the well‐documented shallow crater (<30 m), Ukinrek maars in Alaska) occurring within the age range of 40–70 k years (crater diameter and depth ratio). This study not only aided to validate the above‐mentioned terms for monogenetic volcanoes, but also reconsider a few of them and avoid confusion with the polygenetic counterparts.

Effect of laser wavelength on ablation propulsion and plasma characteristics with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene target

Propulsion performance produced by laser ablation of polymer made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is experimentally investigated using the first, second, and third harmonics of a Nd: YAG laser. A ballistic pendulum is employed to assess the impulse and coupling coefficient for laser propulsion application. Fast photography, target ablation, and optical emission spectroscopy are proposed to analyze the energy coupling characteristic. The impulse and coupling coefficient under different pressures are demonstrated to depend on the target ablation and plasma properties which are relevant to laser wavelength. As the laser wavelength decreases, the crater depth and ablation mass are enhanced. Meanwhile, the plasma plume separates at atmospheric pressure and its length extends continuously in the low-pressure range. As a result, plasma including more ejected particles with higher velocity contributes to obtaining excellent impulse and coupling coefficient. In addition, the decreased electron density and temperature indicate higher collision frequency and photoionization dominate rather than inverse bremsstrahlung absorption at shorter laser wavelengths. This work provides a better understanding of the energy conversion mechanism and a reference for improving propulsion performance.

Multilayer Diamond‐Like Carbon Films on Monocrystalline Diamond

Multilayer films of diamond‐like carbon (DLC) on monocrystalline diamond substrates have been for the first time obtained by plasma‐chemical deposition. Their chemical composition and structural and morphological properties are studied. The DLC individual layers differ in their sp3 carbon content. The multilayer nature of the resulting coatings is confirmed by periodic density modulation on the small‐angle X‐ray reflectometry curve and modulations in the CsC8, CsC6, CsC4 lines on the crater depth profile of secondary ions of elements (secondary ion mass spectrometry). The dependence of the deposition rate of multilayer DLC films on diamond, their composition and properties on the argon additive to the reaction gas mixture, as well as on methane flow, pressure and growth time, are studied.

The Effect of Antecedent Topography on Complex Crater Formation

AbstractImpact craters that form on every planetary body provide a record of planetary surface evolution. On heavily cratered surfaces, new craters that form often overlap antecedent craters, but it is unknown how the presence of antecedent craters alters impact crater formation. We use overlapping complex crater pairs on the lunar surface to constrain this process and find that crater rims are systematically lower where they intersect antecedent crater basins. The rim morphology of the new crater depends on the depth of the antecedent crater and the degree of overlap between the craters. Our observations suggest that new craters do not always obliterate underlying topography and that transient rim collapse is altered by antecedent topography. This study represents the first formalization of the influence of antecedent topography on rim morphology and provides process insight into a common impact scenario relevant to the geology of potential Artemis landing sites.

Ejecta splashing and scaling of projectile oblique impact on granular media

Ejecta splashing is accompanied by the formation of impact craters in oblique impact of a sphere onto a granular target. We investigated the morphology and scaling of the ejection, together with the evolution and final size of crater by performing a series of experiments, varying the impact angle θ and impact speed V0. The experiment categorized the crater shapes in the space parameters Fr and θ and revealed that the maximum ejecta height exhibits two regimes related to Froude number, while the crater length, width, and depth are all collapsed to a master line. Then, the evolution characteristics of the corolla dimensions (top diameter, neck size, bottom diameter, and height) are determined. Moreover, a simple ballistic model taking into account the air drag force acting on the ejecta has been proposed to predict the dynamic processes of the corolla in oblique impacts. Furthermore, the opening of the crater formation deduced by the dynamics of the corolla formed and the collapsing process (i.e., the splashed sand avalanching down along the wall of the crater) have been investigated in detail using a simplified Bouchaud–Cates–Ravi–Edwards model. Our theoretical model demonstrated high accuracy in reproducing the evolution of a crater during impacting and in predicting the final crater scaling after avalanching.

Foreign object damage characteristics of a thin nickel-based superalloy plate at room and high temperatures

Turbine blades with thin-walled structures usually works in harsh environments, and foreign object damage (FOD) is one of the conditions of special concern. In this paper, the FOD characteristics of thin nickel-based superalloy plates are studied by a combination of experimental, numerical and analytical methods, considering room and high temperatures, different impact conditions and plate thicknesses. An easy-to-use test system is developed to realize high speed impact of the thin nickel-based superalloy plate under elevated temperature. Crater morphologies, internal microstructure, and residual stress are analyzed after impact with different conditions. Numerical simulation of the impact process is performed by using Johnson-Cook (J-C) constitutive model. Based on Hertz theory, an analytical method for calculating the crater length and depth is proposed considering the deformation of the impact steel sphere. Results shows that the FOD characteristics at high temperature is significantly different from that at room temperature. The crater has lager dimensions under high speed and elevated temperature. Moreover, significant grain refinement is obvious and the dislocation layer is also thicker at higher speed and higher temperature. Due to the effect of high temperature softening, hardness and residual stress after impact with elevated temperature is lower than that at room temperature. Besides, non-normal impact mainly influences Goss texture and distribution of residual stress after high temperature impact. In addition, it is found that thickness have a significant effect on the FOD characteristics especially when the plate is thinner. The validity of the numerical model and analytical method is proved by comparing with the experimental results. The present study can provide data foundation and numerical analysis support for the damage assessment and maintenance of turbine blades.

Modification of the temporal laser source term in two-temperature model

Simulations on the interaction between laser pulses with materials during pulsed laser ablation require information on the characteristics of both laser and material. While details on material properties are extensively studied, the temporal profile of the laser source term is rarely studied and is generally assumed to be Gaussian. This article explores the effects of non-Gaussian temporal laser source terms (TLSTs) in simulating the heat diffusion within a metal upon irradiation of femtosecond pulsed lasers. We employed the Two-Temperature Model (TTM) to simulate the temperature evolution on the surface of copper upon irradiation of a 100-fs laser pulse with different TLSTs at different laser repetition modes (single-shot, burst, and biburst). We used a constant total fluence of 3J/cm 2 in all cases and subsequently calculated the ablation depths based on the resulting temperature values. Our results show that non-Gaussian TLSTs generate lower electron and lattice temperatures, resulting in shallower crater depths compared to a Gaussian TLST. However, under burst and biburst modes, particularly with higher subpulse number repetition time, the results of non-Gaussian TLSTs approximate those of Gaussian TLSTs. To initiate laser ablation in such cases, higher laser fluence might be required. Our work on non-Gaussian temporal profiles in TTM simulations can be applied to other computational methods in describing laser-matter interaction.

Quantitative Research on the Morphological Characteristics of Lunar Impact Craters of Different Stratigraphic Ages since the Imbrian Period

Impact craters serve as recorders of lunar evolutionary history, and determining the stratigraphic ages of craters is crucial. However, the age of many craters on the Moon remains undetermined. The morphology of craters is closely related to their stratigraphic ages. In the study, we systematically and quantitatively analyzed seven morphological parameters of 432 impact craters with known stratigraphic ages (Copernican, Eratosthenian, Imbrian), including crater depth, wall width, wall height, rim height, irregularity, volume, and roughness, as well as rock abundance. The study provided a range of morphological parameters for craters from the Copernican, Eratosthenian, and Imbrian. Additionally, we derived power law relationships between five morphological parameters and crater diameter, excluding irregularity and roughness. Furthermore, the transitional crater diameters from simple to complex crater morphology were determined for the Copernican and Eratosthenian, approximately 13 km and 15 km, respectively. These results suggest systematic differences in the lunar regolith in different stratigraphic ages. For impact craters of the same diameter, as crater age increases, irregularity tends to be greater, while crater depth, wall width, wall height, rim height, volume, roughness, and rock abundance tend to be smaller. Therefore, in cases where the diameter is determined, the actual values of morphological parameters and rock abundance can be used to constrain the stratigraphic age information of craters of an unknown age.

Subpicosecond laser ablation behavior of a magnesium target and crater evolution: Molecular dynamics study and experimental validation

Abstract The micro-ablation processes and morphological evolution of ablative craters on single-crystal magnesium under subpicosecond laser irradiation are investigated using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and experiments. The simulation results exhibit that the main failure mode of single-crystal Mg film irradiated by a low fluence and long pulse width laser is the ejection of surface atoms, which has laser-induced high stress. However, under high fluence and short pulse width laser irradiation, the main damage mechanism is nucleation fracture caused by stress wave reflection and superposition at the bottom of the film. In addition, Mg[0001] has higher pressure sensitivity and is more prone to ablation than Mg [ 10 1 ¯ 0 ] . The evolution equation of crater depth is established using multi-pulse laser ablation simulation and verified by experiments. The results show that, under multiple pulsed laser irradiation, not only does the crater depth increase linearly with the pulse number, but also the quadratic term and constant term of the fitted crater profile curve increase linearly.