Depressive Symptoms In Young Adults Research Articles

Exploring the Mechanism of the Clinical Encounter on Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults: A Path Analysis

ABSTRACTElucidating mechanisms of how high quality clinical encounters with providers may alleviate depressive symptoms in young adults are critical to reduce psychological morbidity and disability. Guided by Street's Model of Health Communication (SMHC), this study explores the predictive relationships of the clinical encounter, which includes communication functions (patient-provider communication and patient self-appraisal of communication skills with provider) and proximal outcomes (patient activation; PA) to improve health outcomes (depressive symptoms) in young adults. This study of young adults (n = 60) employed path analysis to examine the overall model fit and direct and indirect effects of each variable on depressive symptoms. The final SMHC had excellent model fit (X2 = 2.26, p =.32, TLI =.99, CFI = 1.00, RMSEA =.05). Patient-provider communication and self-appraised communication skills with providers had indirect effects on depressive symptoms and a direct effect on PA; PA had a direct effect on depressive symptoms (R2 =.30, p <.01). Findings elucidate potential novel targets, amenable to behavioral intervention, to improve depressive symptoms within the clinical encounter, and provide a foundation for hypothesis-driven model testing among young adults with depressive symptoms.

Age-varying associations between nonmarital sexual behavior and depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood.

Research has demonstrated associations between adolescent sexual behavior and depressive symptoms, but no single study has examined individuals at different ages throughout adolescence and young adulthood in order to determine at what ages sexual behavior may be associated with higher or lower levels of depressive symptoms. Using nationally representative longitudinal data and an innovative method, the time-varying effect model (TVEM), which examines how the strength of an association changes over time, this study examines how nonmarital sexual intercourse is associated with depressive symptoms at different ages, which behaviors and contexts may contribute to these associations, and whether associations differ for male and female participants. Findings indicate that sexual behavior in adolescence is associated with a higher level of depressive symptoms, particularly for female adolescents, and this association is relatively consistent across different partner types and adolescent contexts. Associations between sexual behavior and depressive symptoms in young adulthood are more dependent on partner factors and adolescent contexts; sexual behavior in young adulthood is associated with fewer depressive symptoms for women who have sex with a single partner and for men whose parents did not strongly disapprove of adolescent sexual behavior. Findings suggest that delaying sexual behavior into young adulthood may have some benefits for mental health, although contextual and relationship factors also play a role. (PsycINFO Database Record

Self-esteem moderates the associations between body-related self-conscious emotions and depressive symptoms.

The objectives of this study were to describe the cross-sectional associations between body-related self-conscious emotions and depressive symptoms in young adults and examine self-esteem as a moderator of these associations. Data from a population-based sample of 811 young adults were analyzed using hierarchical multivariate linear regression analysis. Body-related shame ( β = .26) and guilt ( β = .25) were positively related to frequency of depressive symptoms. Self-esteem was negatively related to frequency of depressive symptoms ( β = -.46). Self-esteem moderated the association between body-related guilt and frequency of depressive symptoms. These findings suggest promoting self-esteem may help to reduce the negative effects of body-related guilt on depressive symptoms.

New insights into the correlation structure of DSM-IV depression symptoms in the general population v. subsamples of depressed individuals.

Previous research failed to uncover a replicable dimensional structure underlying the symptoms of depression. We aimed to examine two neglected methodological issues in this research: (a) adjusting symptom correlations for overall depression severity; and (b) analysing general population samples v. subsamples of currently depressed individuals. Using population-based cross-sectional and longitudinal data from two nations (Switzerland, 5883 young men; USA, 2174 young men and 2244 young women) we assessed the dimensions of the nine DSM-IV depression symptoms in young adults. In each general-population sample and each subsample of currently depressed participants, we conducted a standardised process of three analytical steps, based on exploratory and confirmatory factor and bifactor analysis, to reveal any replicable dimensional structure underlying symptom correlations while controlling for overall depression severity. We found no evidence of a replicable dimensional structure across samples when adjusting symptom correlations for overall depression severity. In the general-population samples, symptoms correlated strongly and a single dimension of depression severity was revealed. Among depressed participants, symptom correlations were surprisingly weak and no replicable dimensions were identified, regardless of severity-adjustment. First, caution is warranted when considering studies assessing dimensions of depression because general population-based studies and studies of depressed individuals generate different data that can lead to different conclusions. This problem likely generalises to other models based on the symptoms' inter-relationships such as network models. Second, whereas the overall severity aligns individuals on a continuum of disorder intensity that allows non-affected individuals to be distinguished from affected individuals, the clinical evaluation and treatment of depressed individuals should focus directly on each individual's symptom profile.

Protection From Depression Following Emotional Maltreatment: The Unique Role of Positive Schemas

Much research has examined negative cognitive schemas as mediators of the established relation between emotional maltreatment (EMT) in childhood and young adult depression, yet little research has investigated the possibility of a protective function of positive schemas in this regard. In the current study, 434 young adult men (n = 112) and women (n = 312), aged 17 to 25 years (M = 18.59, SD = 1.21), completed measures of EMT, depressive symptoms, negative schemas, positive schema content, and interconnectivity. Both the content and interconnectivity of positive schemas were associated with lower depressive symptoms. Further, consistent with a protective function explanation, positive schemas significantly moderated the relation between EMT and depressive symptoms in young adulthood. Of all positive schema themes, optimism emerged as the most uniquely associated moderator of the EMT-to-depression relation. Results highlight a potential cognitive resilient process following EMT and underscore the importanc...

Deficits in Access to Reward Are Associated with College Student Alcohol Use Disorder.

Reward deprivation has been implicated in major depressive disorder and severe substance abuse, but its potential relation to alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms in non-treatment-seeking young adult drinkers is less clear. Depression is often comorbid with alcohol misuse, so relations of AUD with reward deprivation might be due in part to the presence of depressive symptoms in young adults. Behavioral economic theory views addiction as a state that is related in part to deficits in drug-free rewards, and therefore requires an investigation into whether reward deprivation has a direct relation to alcohol misuse that is, at least partially, independent of mood. This study evaluates the contribution of 2 facets of reward deprivation (reward availability and experience) to alcohol use, AUD symptoms, and depression in a sample of young adult heavy episodic drinkers. Data were collected from 392 undergraduates (60.4% female, 85.1% Caucasian) who reported recent heavy drinking (83.7% with at least 1 AUD symptom). Low reward availability (environmental suppression) was significantly associated with both DSM-5 AUD symptoms and alcohol-related problems after controlling for age, gender, depressive symptomatology, and drinking level. This study provides support for behavioral economic models that emphasize reward deprivation as a unique risk factor for AUD that is independent of mood and drinking level. Limited access to natural rewards may be a risk and/or maintaining factor for AUD symptoms in college student drinkers.

A Longitudinal Twin and Sibling Study of Associations between Insomnia and Depression Symptoms in Young Adults.

To estimate genetic and environmental influences on the associations between insomnia and depression symptoms concurrently and longitudinally. Behavioral genetic analyses were conducted on data from the British longitudinal G1219 twin/sibling study. One thousand five hundred fiftysix twins and siblings participated at Time 1 (mean age = 20.3 years, SD = 1.76). Eight hundred sixty-two participated at Time 2 (mean age = 25.2 years, SD = 1.73 years). Participants completed the Insomnia Symptoms Questionnaire and the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire to assess symptoms of insomnia and depression respectively. Genetic effects accounted for 33% to 41% of the variance of the phenotypes. The phenotypic correlations were moderate (r = 0.34 to r = 0.52). The genetic correlations between the variables were high (0.73-1.00). Genetic effects accounted for a substantial proportion of the associations between variables (50% to 90%). Non-shared environmental effects explained the rest of the variance and covariance of the traits. While genetic effects play a modest role in insomnia and depression symptoms separately, they appear to play a more central role in concurrent and longitudinal associations between these phenotypes. This should be acknowledged in theories explaining these common associations.

Racial/ethnic differences in the association of childhood adversities with depression and the role of resilience

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACE) including childhood abuse and trauma increase depressive symptoms. The role of resilience and how it interacts with both ACEs and the potential development of depressive symptoms, including how race and ethnicity moderate these effects, are much less studied. The aims of this study were to examine: 1) whether there is a dose-response relationship between trauma and depressive symptoms; 2) whether early trauma affected European Americans (EA) and African Americans (AA) in a similar fashion; and 3) whether resilience mitigates the effect of trauma. MethodsThe present study comprised a cross-sectional study of subjects from a longitudinal cohort. All subjects were 19 years or older with traumatic experiences prior to age 18. Subjects were assessed for depressive symptoms as well as resilience. ResultsIn 413 subjects enrolled, ACEs were significantly associated with depression severity in a dose-response fashion (p<0.001). Notably, AAs had lower depression scores at low to moderate levels of ACEs than EAs, but reported comparable levels of depression with severe exposure to ACEs (pInteraction=0.05). In both EAs and AAs, young adults with high and medium levels of resilience showed less depressive symptoms compared to those with low resilience (p<0.05). Limitationsto consider are the cross-sectional design, possibility of other confounders, and potential for recall bias of this study. ConclusionWhile ACEs were significantly associated with severity of depression in a dose-response fashion, higher resilience mitigated the impact of childhood adversities on depressive symptoms in young adults. The results are encouraging, and guides research for therapeutics to boost resilience.

Fewer self-reported depressive symptoms in young adults exposed to maternal depressed mood during pregnancy

BackgroundDepressed mood is prevalent during pregnancy, with accumulating evidence suggesting an impact on developmental outcome in the offspring. However, the long-term effects of prenatal maternal depression regarding internalizing psychopathology in the offspring are as yet unclear. MethodsAs part of an ongoing epidemiological cohort study, prenatal maternal depressed mood was assessed at the child's age of 3 months. In a sample of n=307 offspring, depressive symptoms were obtained via questionnaire at the ages of 19, 22, 23 and 25 years. At age 25 years, diagnoses of depressive disorder were obtained using a diagnostic interview. In a subsample of currently healthy participants, voxel-based morphometry was conducted and amygdala volume was assessed. ResultsIn n=85 young adults exposed to prenatal maternal depressed mood, no significantly higher risk for a diagnosis of depressive disorder was observed. However, they reported significantly lower levels of depressive symptoms. This association was especially pronounced when prenatal maternal depressed mood was present during the first trimester of pregnancy and when maternal mood was depressed pre- as well as postnatally. At an uncorrected level only, prenatal maternal depressed mood was associated with decreased amygdala volume. LimitationsPrenatal maternal depressed mood was not assessed during pregnancy, but shortly after childbirth. No diagnoses of maternal clinical depression during pregnancy were available. ConclusionsSelf-reported depressive symptoms do not imply increased, but rather decreased symptom levels in young adults who were exposed to prenatal maternal depressed mood. A long-term perspective may be important when considering consequences of prenatal risk factors.

CANNABIS (BHANG, CHARAS) CONSUMPTION

Cannabis or marijuana is an illegal drug that is being used mostly by young adultscan have adverse effects i.e., dependence syndrome, impaired respiratory and cardiovascularfunctions, psychosocial and mental health disorders. Objective: The present study examinedthe effects of cannabis (including bhang &amp; charas) consumption on emotional and cognitivedisturbances and depressive symptoms in young adults who use cannabis. The researchfurther explored that cannabis consumption frequency will mediate between emotional andcognitive disturbances and depressive symptoms in young adults. Study Design: Correlationalresearch design. Settings: Lahore city. Method: Sample included 200 young adults who usedcannabis in routine and 200 young adults who did not consume any kind of substance. Theage range of the sample was between 20 years to 27 years. Snowball sampling technique wasused to recruit sample. The comparison group was matched on age, education and socioeconomicstatus. Cognitive Failure Questionnaire1, Emotional Regulation Scale2 and PatientHealth Questionnaire3 were used as assessment measures. Results: Results showed thatyoung adults who use cannabis had higher emotional and cognitive disturbances and hadmore depressive symptoms compared to the normal controls. There was a significant positiverelationship and association between cannabis consumption and emotional and cognitivedisturbances and depressive symptoms. Cannabis consumption had mediating relationshipbetween cognitive and emotional disturbances and depressive symptoms. Implications of thestudy along with strengths and limitations of the current study are discussed.

English

Cannabis or marijuana is an illegal drug that is being used mostly by young adults can have adverse effects i.e., dependence syndrome, impaired respiratory and cardiovascular functions, psychosocial and mental health disorders. Objective: The present study examined the effects of cannabis (including bhang & charas) consumption on emotional and cognitive disturbances and depressive symptoms in young adults who use cannabis. The research further explored that cannabis consumption frequency will mediate between emotional and cognitive disturbances and depressive symptoms in young adults. Study Design: Correlational research design. Settings: Lahore city. Method: Sample included 200 young adults who used cannabis in routine and 200 young adults who did not consume any kind of substance. The age range of the sample was between 20 years to 27 years. Snowball sampling technique was used to recruit sample. The comparison group was matched on age, education and socio- economic status. Cognitive Failure Questionnaire 1 , Emotional Regulation Scale 2 and Patient Health Questionnaire 3 were used as assessment measures. Results: Results showed that young adults who use cannabis had higher emotional and cognitive disturbances and had more depressive symptoms compared to the normal controls. There was a significant positive relationship and association between cannabis consumption and emotional and cognitive disturbances and depressive symptoms. Cannabis consumption had mediating relationship between cognitive and emotional disturbances and depressive symptoms. Implications of the study along with strengths and limitations of the current study are discussed.

English

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Gender Moderation of the Intergenerational Transmission and Stability of Depressive Symptoms from Early Adolescence to Early Adulthood.

Factors that might exacerbate or mitigate the transmission of depressive symptoms from parents to adolescents and the continuity of depressive symptoms into early adulthood are poorly understood. This study tested the hypothesis that the intergenerational transmission and stability of depressive symptoms would be stronger for girls than boys over adolescence and into early adulthood, while considering the possibility that the pattern of gender moderation might vary depending on parent gender and developmental timing. The participants were 667 rural Midwestern adolescents (52% female) and their parents. Survey data on maternal and paternal depressive symptoms (at youth age 11) and on adolescent and young adult depressive symptoms (at youth ages 11, 18, and 21) were analyzed via multiple group structural equation modeling. Maternal depressive symptoms predicted increased late adolescent depressive symptoms for girls but not boys, and adolescent depressive symptoms were more stable in girls. Paternal depressive symptoms predicted increased late adolescent depressive symptoms for all youth. The findings suggest the need for early, tailored interventions.

Religious coping as a moderator of the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms.

This study examined whether religious coping (positive and negative) prospectively moderated the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms in young adults. Religious commitment was examined as a potential moderator of the effect of religious coping on the stress-depression relationship. Participants were 320 undergraduates from a small, private Christian university who reported weekly fluctuations in stress and depressive symptoms across an 8-week diary study. Data were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Results indicated that negative religious coping moderated the relationship between stress and depression, but only for those who reported high levels of religious commitment. We found no evidence for positive religious coping as a buffer against the effects of stress on depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms and diagnoses increase markedly during adolescence and early adulthood, with 11.7% of Americans expe- riencing a major depressive episode by age 22 (Shanahan, Cope- land, Costello, & Angold, 2011). Although exposure to stress predicts onset and course of depression (Kendler, Karkowski, & Prescott, 1999), contemporary cognitive-behavioral theories of depression hold that individual differences in the experience of and response to stress increase the risk of experiencing depressive symptoms (Abela, Aydin, & Auerbach, 2006; Hankin, Abramson, Miller, & Haeffel, 2004; Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008). According to these theories, many factors that influence the de- velopment of depression do so by moderating the stress- depression relationship, either by buffering or exacerbating the effects of stress. One factor that may influence the relationship between stress and depression is religiosity. There has been a recent increase in research on the impact of religiosity on mental health (Ano & Vasconcelles, 2005; Carpenter, Laney, & Mezulis, 2012; Davis, Ashby, McElroy, & Hook, 2014; Hall & Flanagan, 2013; Rasic, Kisely, & Langille, 2011; Sternthal, Williams, Musick, & Buck, 2010; Taylor, Chatters, & Abelson, 2012) with an emerging atten- tion on religious coping strategies. Religious coping strategies refer to spiritual and religiously based cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal responses to stressors (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1998). Research indicates there are both positive and neg- ative religious coping strategies that differentially impact an indi- vidual's mental health (Pargament, Feuille, & Burdzy, 2011; Par- gament et al., 1998; Ramirez et al., 2012). Although religious coping has been consistently linked with mental health, few studies have examined religious coping as a moderator of the relationship between stress and depression in a prospective study (Carpenter et al., 2012; Pirutinsky, Rosmarin, Pargament, & Midlarsky, 2011). Additionally, there is evidence that the benefits of religious coping in response to stress may differ for those with higher levels of religious commitment relative to those with lower levels of reli- gious commitment (Eliassen, Taylor, & Lloyd, 2005). The current study examines positive and negative religious coping as moder- ators of the effects of stress on depressive symptoms in an 8-week prospective study among young adults. Furthermore, we assess religious commitment as a moderator of the effect of religious coping on the stress-depression relationship.

Change and stability in depressive symptoms in young adults with type 1 diabetes

This study examined inter-individual differences in depressive symptom development in young adults with type 1 diabetes. Individuals with persistent depressive symptoms were at risk for suboptimal development in terms of illness perceptions, illness functioning, and self-esteem. Individuals reporting no/minimal depressive symptoms over time were characterized by the most optimal development.

Familism Values, Family Time, and Mexican-Origin Young Adults' Depressive Symptoms.

Using longitudinal data across eight years, this study examined how parents' familism values in early adolescence predicted youths' depressive symptoms in young adulthood via youths' familism values and family time. We examined these processes among 246 Mexican-origin families using interview and phone-diary data. Findings revealed that fathers' familism values predicted male and female youths' familism values in middle adolescence. For female youth only, fathers' familism values also predicted youths' family time in late adolescence. The link between family time and young adults' depressive symptoms depended on parental acceptance and adolescent gender: Among female and male youth, family time predicted fewer depressive symptoms, but only when paternal acceptance was high. For female adolescents only, family time predicted fewer depressive symptoms when maternal acceptance was high but more depressive symptoms when maternal acceptance was low. Findings highlight family dynamics as the mechanisms through which familism values have implications for youths' adjustment.

Autobiographical Memory and Depression: Identity‐continuity and Problem‐solving Functions Indirectly Predict Symptoms over Time through Psychological Well‐being

SummaryThe aim of this study was to assess the longitudinal associations between adaptive autobiographical memory functions and depressive symptoms. Consistent with the proposed mechanisms of change underpinning cognitive‐reminiscence therapy (CRT), it was hypothesised that more frequent adaptive reminiscence would lead to increases in psychological resources over time and indirectly affect depressive symptoms through this pathway. A sample of 171 young adults (mean age = 25.9 years, SD = 3.5) completed measures of how frequently they utilised autobiographical memory for identity‐continuity and problem‐solving purposes, depressive symptoms and personal resources (self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, meaning in life and optimism) at two time‐points. The results of structural equation modelling supported the model of indirect influence between reminiscence functions and depression through these psychological resources. These findings clarify the effects of adaptive autobiographical memory on depressive symptoms in young adults and indicate potential benefits of interventions such as CRT. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Developmental Trajectories of Subjective Social Status.

Subjective social status (SSS), a person's sense of their (or for youth, abstract their family's) position in the socioeconomic hierarchy, is strongly related to health in adults but not health in adolescence. Understanding this developmental discrepancy requires first understanding the developmental trajectory of SSS. The objective of this study was to identify the number and shape of SSS trajectories as adolescents transition to adulthood and explore if trajectory membership affects health. Using data from 7436 assessments from the Princeton School District Study, a decade long cohort study of non-Hispanic black and white youth, latent class growth models with 3 to 7 SSS trajectories were developed. Model fit, trajectory structure, and shape were used to guide optimal model selection. Using this optimal model, the associations of trajectory membership with BMI and depressive symptoms in young adulthood were explored. The 5-class model was optimal. In this model, trajectories were persistent high (7.8%),mid–high (32.2%), middle (43.4%), low–lower (7.4%), and high–low (9.1%). Non-Hispanic black race/ethnicity, lower household income, and low parent education were associated with membership in this high–low trajectory. High–low trajectory membership was associated with higher BMI and depressive symptoms in non-Hispanic white subjects but was not associated with depressive symptoms. It was associated with lower BMI only after adjustment for BMI in adolescence in non-Hispanic black subjects. SSS is relatively stable in adolescence and the transition to adulthood, and it generally reflects objective markers of social advantage. However, socially disadvantaged youth with high SSS in early adolescence may be at increased health risk.

A prospective study of screen time in adolescence and depression symptoms in young adulthood

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the association between screen time in adolescence and depressive symptoms in young adulthood in a population-based cohort study of Danish adolescents. MethodsData were from a cohort of adolescents who were followed-up in young adulthood for a period of up to 12years (1997–2010, mean 8.8years, n=435). Information on television viewing, computer use, total screen time and other determinants of depression were obtained in adolescence. Depressive symptoms were obtained in young adulthood using the Major Depression Inventory (MDI) and classified as mild, moderate or severe depression. Mixed regression models were used to examine the associations, with adjustment for major confounders. ResultsIn multivariable adjusted analyses, each additional hour/day spent watching television or screen viewing in adolescence was associated with 1.36 (95% CI 0.73–1.98) and 1.05 (95% CI 0.50–1.60), respectively, greater MDI depression summary score in young adulthood (p<0.001). In logistic regression models, each additional hour/day spent watching television or screen viewing was associated with 1.64 (95% CI 1.18–2.27) and 1.58 (95% CI 1.18–2.12), respectively, greater odds of prevalent depression in young adulthood, and dose–response relationships were indicated. Additional adjustment for either cardiorespiratory fitness or BMI did not materially change the results. No significant associations were observed between adolescent computer use and depressive symptoms in young adulthood. ConclusionsLimiting screen time, particularly television viewing, during adolescence may be important for preventing depression in young adulthood.

Parenting Stress as a Mediator Between Childhood ADHD and Early Adult Female Outcomes

The purpose of this study is to examine the mediating role of parenting stress (both parental distress and stress due to dysfunctional interactions in the mother–daughter relationship [PSDI]) in the link between childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) status and several important young adult outcomes. The diverse sample comprised 140 girls with ADHD and 88 age- and ethnicity-matched comparisons, evaluated at ages 6–12 years and followed prospectively for five years (M age = 14.2) and 10 years (M age = 19.6). The PSDI experienced by a mother during her daughter's adolescence mediated the link between her daughter's childhood ADHD status and adult externalizing and internalizing symptoms. PSDI also mediated the link between ADHD status and young adult nonsuicidal self-injury and had an indirect effect in the relation between childhood ADHD and young adult depressive symptoms. The mediating role of PSDI with respect to internalizing symptoms and depressive symptoms remained in place even when covarying adolescent internalizing/depressive symptoms. Parenting stress, particularly related to maternal perceptions of dysfunctional interactions with adolescent daughters, serves as a key mediator in the association between childhood ADHD status and important domains of young adult functioning. Minimizing parenting stress and dysfunctional mother–daughter interactions during adolescence might reduce the risk of adverse adult outcomes for girls with ADHD.