Depolarizing Receptor Potential Research Articles

Privileged crosstalk between TRPV1 channels and mitochondrial calcium shuttling machinery controls nociception

The nociceptive noxious heat-activated receptor - TRPV1, conducts calcium and sodium, thus producing a depolarizing receptor potential, leading to activation of nociceptive neurons. TRPV1-mediated calcium and sodium influx is negatively modulated by calcium, via calcium-dependent desensitization of TRPV1 channels. A mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter - MCU, controls mitochondrial Ca2+ entry while a sodium/calcium transporter - NCLX shapes calcium and sodium transients by mediating sodium entry into and removing calcium from the mitochondria. The functional interplay between TRPV1, MCU and NCLX, in controlling the cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium and sodium transients and subsequently the nociceptive excitability, is poorly understood. Here, we used cytosolic and mitochondrial fluorescent calcium and sodium imaging together with electrophysiological recordings of TRPV1-induced currents in HEK293T cells and nociceptor-like dissociated rat dorsal root ganglion neurons, while modulating NCLX or MCU expression using specific small interfering RNA (siNCLX). We show that the propagation of the TRPV1-induced cytosolic calcium and sodium fluxes into mitochondria is dependent on coordinated activity of NCLX and MCU. Thus, knocking-down of NCLX triggers down regulation of MCU dependent mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake. This in turn decreases rate and amplitude of TRPV1-mediated cytosolic calcium, which inhibits capsaicin-induced inward current and neuronal firing. TRPV1-mediated currents were fully rescued by intracellular inclusion of the fast calcium chelator BAPTA. Finally, NCLX controls capsaicin-induced cell death, by supporting massive mitochondrial Ca2+ shuttling. Altogether, our results suggest that NCLX, by regulating cytosolic and mitochondrial ionic transients, modulates calcium-dependent desensitization of TRPV1 channels, thereby, controlling nociceptive signaling.

Deciphering the function of the CNGB1b subunit in olfactory CNG channels.

Olfactory cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) ion channels are key players in the signal transduction cascade of olfactory sensory neurons. The second messengers cAMP and cGMP directly activate these channels, generating a depolarizing receptor potential. Olfactory CNG channels are composed of two CNGA2 subunits and two modulatory subunits, CNGA4, and CNGB1b. So far the exact role of the modulatory subunits for channel activation is not fully understood. By measuring ligand binding and channel activation simultaneously, we show that in functional heterotetrameric channels not only the CNGA2 subunits and the CNGA4 subunit but also the CNGB1b subunit binds cyclic nucleotides and, moreover, also alone translates this signal to open the pore. In addition, we show that the CNGB1b subunit is the most sensitive subunit in a heterotetrameric channel to cyclic nucleotides and that it accelerates deactivation to a similar extent as does the CNGA4 subunit. In conclusion, the CNGB1b subunit participates in ligand-gated activation of olfactory CNG channels and, particularly, contributes to rapid termination of odorant signal in an olfactory sensory neuron.

A TRP conductance modulates repolarization after sensory-dependent depolarization in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Sensory integration is vital for motile organisms constantly exposed to changing surroundings. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a single-celled green alga found swimming in freshwater. In this type of alga, sensory input is first detected by membrane receptors located in the cell body, and then transduced to the beating cilia by membrane depolarization. Many components of the machinery associated with sensory integration in C. reinhardtii, such as chemoreceptors and repolarization-associated channels, are yet uncharacterized. TRP channels are known mediators for cellular sensing in animal cells and it has been suggested that the C. reinhardtii genome encodes for a set of TRP proteins. Here, by combining behavioral studies with electrophysiological experiments conducted on both population and single alga, we test whether TRP channel blockers affect algal swimming behavior. Our results suggest that a TRP conductance is associated to the repolarization that follows a depolarizing receptor potential, highlighting a primitive function of TRP proteins.

Modeling Excitability in Mechanosensory Neurons with MS Cation and MS Kv Channels

In mechanosensory neurons, depolarizing receptor potentials arise from mechanosensitive (MS) cation channels (ECation=∼0 mV), but new findings in touch and pain neurons indicate that firing characteristics are precisely modulated by MS Kv channels. Depending on the context in which it is elicited, mechanically facilitated Kv1 activation puts the brakes on mechanosensory firing thresholds or frequencies (Hao et al 2013 Neuron 77:899). This can, for instance, ensure that only intense (noxious) mechanical stimuli generate action potential (AP) traffic in high-threshold neurons. Here we use AP modeling to explore qualitatively how Kv channel mechanosensitivity could affect threshold behaviors and AP frequency characteristics. An important unsettled question is which transition(s) in the Kv channel's activation path accounts for Kv mechanosensitivity. Mechanosensitivity could reside with a voltage dependent step or with the thermal opening transition (Tabarean & Morris 2002 Biophys J 82:2982; Schmidt et al 2012 PNAS 109:10352). During membrane deformations this mechanistic “detail” would be consequential, we argue, because the MS transition's location can powerfully affect the magnitude of gKmax(apparent) and deactivation time course rates. To allow us computational access to the specific Kv transitions, we run a hybrid HH/Markov AP model. While the standard excitability machinery is given in HH terms, the MS conductances are described in Markov fashion. To mimic the effect of a membrane stretch deformation on the MS gK, the forward/backward rates of either the concerted voltage-dependent closed-closed transition or the thermal open-closed transition are increased/decreased reciprocally (e.g., doubled/halved). Mechanoreceptor neurons can exhibit phasic responsiveness to sustained mechanical stimuli; to explore such behavior, terms are included that allow for the possibility that the two MS conductances, MS gCation and the MS gK, experience deformation onset/offset intensities differently. Supported by NSERC Canada & by OHRI.

Activation of oral trigeminal neurons by fatty acids is dependent upon intracellular calcium

The chemoreception of dietary fat in the oral cavity has largely been attributed to activation of the somatosensory system that conveys the textural properties of fat. However, the ability of fatty acids, which are believed to represent the proximate stimulus for fat taste, to stimulate rat trigeminal neurons has remained unexplored. Here, we found that several free fatty acids are capable of activating trigeminal neurons with different kinetics. Further, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, linoleic acid (LA), activates trigeminal neurons by increasing intracellular calcium concentration and generating depolarizing receptor potentials. Ion substitution and pharmacological approaches reveal that intracellular calcium store depletion is crucial for LA-induced signaling in a subset of trigeminal neurons. Using pseudorabies virus (PrV) as a live cell tracer, we identified a subset of lingual nerve-innervated trigeminal neurons that respond to different subsets of fatty acids. Quantitative real-time PCR of several transient receptor potential channel markers in individual neurons validated that PrV labeled a subset but not the entire population of lingual-innervated trigeminal neurons. We further confirmed that the LA-induced intracellular calcium rise is exclusively coming from the release of calcium stores from the endoplasmic reticulum in this subset of lingual nerve-innervated trigeminal neurons.

Interaction Between Gustatory Depolarizing Receptor Potential and Efferent-Induced Slow Depolarizing Synaptic Potential in Frog Taste Cell

Electrical stimulation of parasympathetic nerve (PSN) efferent fibers in the glossopharyngeal nerve induced a slow depolarizing synaptic potential (DSP) in frog taste cells under hypoxia. The objective of this study is to examine the interaction between a gustatory depolarizing receptor potential (GDRP) and a slow DSP. The amplitude of slow DSP added to a tastant-induced GDRP of 10 mV was suppressed to 60% of control slow DSPs for NaCl and acetic acid stimulations, but to 20-30% for quinine-HCl (Q-HCl) and sucrose stimulations. On the other hand, when a GDRP was induced during a prolonged slow DSP, the amplitude of GDRPs induced by 1 M NaCl and 1 M sucrose was suppressed to 50% of controls, but that by 1 mM acetic acid and 10 mM Q-HCl unchanged. It is concluded that the interaction between GDRPs and efferent-induced slow DSPs in frog taste cells under hypoxia derives from the crosstalk between a gustatory receptor current across the receptive membrane and a slow depolarizing synaptic current across the proximal subsynaptic membrane of taste cells.

TRPV1 Gene Required for Thermosensory Transduction and Anticipatory Secretion from Vasopressin Neurons during Hyperthermia

Increases in core body temperature promote thermoregulatory cooling by stimulating sweat production and preemptive renal water reabsorption through the release of vasopressin (VP, antidiuretic hormone). The mechanism by which the hypothalamus orchestrates this anticipatory VP release during hyperthermia is unknown but has been linked to a central thermosensory mechanism. Here, we report that thermal stimuli spanning core body temperatures activate a calcium-permeable, ruthenium red- and SB366791-sensitive nonselective cation conductance in hypothalamic VP neurons. This response is associated with a depolarizing receptor potential and an increase in action potential firing rate, indicating that these neurons are intrinsically thermosensitive. The thermosensitivity of VP neurons isolated from trpv1 knockout (Trpv1(-/-)) mice was significantly lower than that of wild-type counterparts. Moreover, Trpv1(-/-) mice showed an impaired VP response to hyperthermia in vivo. Channels encoded by the trpv1 gene thus confer thermosensitivity in central VP neurons and contribute to the thermal control of VP release in vivo.

Effects of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) on swimming behavior and membrane potential of paramecium caudatum

Persistent perfluorinated organic compounds such as perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were distributed widely in the global. PFOS (15 microM or higher) caused backward swimming of paramecia. The Triton-extracted paramecia, where the membrane was disrupted and the externally applied chemicals are freely accessible to the ciliary apparatus, showed forward swimming up to 0.1 microM Ca2+ in the medium and backward swimming at about 0.2 microM and higher. PFOS (0.1 mM) did not change the relationship between the swimming directions and free Ca2+ concentrations. Effects of various surfactants including PFOS and PFOA on the swimming direction of paramecia were compared with the hemolysis of mouse erythrocytes as an indicator of surfactant activities. The hemolysis did not correlate with their swimming behavior. PFOS caused triphasic membrane potential changes both in the wild-type paramecia and caudatum non-reversal (CNR) mutants, the latter is defective in voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. An action potential of the wild-type specimen was induced at lower current intensity when PFOS was present in the medium. Voltage-clamp study indicated that PFOS had no effect on the depolarization-induced Ca2+ influx responsible for the action potential. The membrane potential responses obtained were similar to those obtained by the application of some bitter substances such as quinine that activate chemoreceptors of paramecia. Since the CNR specimens did not exhibit PFOS-induced backward swimming at concentrations examined, the backward swimming is attributable to the influx of Ca2+ into the cilia through voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. The Ca2+ channels are most probably activated by the depolarizing receptor potentials resulted from the PFOS-induced activation of chemoreceptors.

Mechanisms of Low-Glucose Sensitivity in Carotid Body Glomus Cells

Glucose sensing is essential for the adaptive counterregulatory responses to hypoglycemia. We investigated the mechanisms underlying carotid body (CB) glomus cells activation by low glucose. Removal of extracellular glucose elicited a cell secretory response, abolished by blockade of plasma membrane Ca(2+) channels, and a reversible increase in cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration. These data indicated that glucopenia induces transmembrane Ca(2+) influx and transmitter secretion. In patch-clamped glomus cells, exposure to low glucose resulted in inhibition of macroscopic outward K(+) currents and in the generation of a depolarizing receptor potential (DRP). The DRP was abolished upon removal of extracellular Na(+). The membrane-permeable 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol induced inward currents of similar characteristics as the current triggered by glucose deficiency. The functional and pharmacological analyses suggest that low glucose activates background cationic Na(+)-permeant channels, possibly of the transient receptor potential C subtype. Rotenone, a drug that occludes glomus cell sensitivity to hypoxia, did not abolish responsiveness to low glucose. The association of Glut2 and glucokinase, characteristic of some high glucose-sensing cells, did not seem to be needed for low glucose detection. Altogether, these data support the view that the CB is a multimodal chemoreceptor with a physiological role in glucose homeostasis.

Neurophysiological characterization of mammalian osmosensitive neurones

In mammals, the osmolality of the extracellular fluid is maintained near a predetermined set-point through a negative feedback regulation of thirst, diuresis, salt appetite and natriuresis. This homeostatic control is believed to be mediated by osmosensory neurones which synaptically regulate the electrical activity of command neurones that mediate each of these osmoregulatory effector responses. Our present understanding of the molecular, cellular and network basis that underlies the central control of osmoregulation is largely derived from studies on primary osmosensory neurones in the organum vasculosum lamina terminalis (OVLT) and effector neurones in the supraoptic nucleus (SON), which release hormones that regulate diuresis and natriuresis. Primary osmosensory neurones in the OVLT exhibit changes in action potential firing rate that vary in proportion with ECF osmolality. This effect results from the intrinsic depolarizing receptor potential which these cells generate via a molecular transduction complex that may comprise various members of the transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) family of cation channel proteins, notably TRPV1 and TRPV4. Osmotically evoked changes in the firing rate of OVLT neurones then regulate the electrical activity of downstream neurones in the SON through graded changes in glutamate release.

Depression of Gustatory Receptor Potential in Frog Taste Cell by Parasympathetic Nerve-Induced Slow Hyperpolarizing Potential

Parasympathetic nerve (PSN) innervates taste cells of the frog taste disk, and electrical stimulation of PSN elicited a slow hyperpolarizing potential (HP) in taste cells. Here we report that gustatory receptor potentials in frog taste cells are depressed by PSN-induced slow HPs. When PSN was stimulated at 30 Hz during generation of taste cell responses, the large amplitude of depolarizing receptor potential for 1 M NaCl and 1 mM acetic acid was depressed by approximately 40% by slow HPs, but the small amplitude of the depolarizing receptor potential for 10 mM quinine-HCl (Q-HCl) and 1 M sucrose was completely depressed by slow HPs and furthermore changed to the hyperpolarizing direction. The duration of the depolarizing receptor potentials depressed by slow HPs prolonged with increasing period of PSN stimulation. As tastant-induced depolarizing receptor potentials were increased, the amplitude of PSN-induced slow HPs inhibiting the receptor potentials gradually decreased. The mean reversal potentials of the slow HPs were approximately -1 mV under NaCl and acetic acid stimulations, but approximately -14 mV under Q-HCl and sucrose stimulations. This implies that when a slow HP was evoked on the same amplitude of depolarizing receptor potentials, the depression of the NaCl and acetic acid responses in taste cells was larger than that of Q-HCl and sucrose responses. It is concluded that slow HP-induced depression of gustatory depolarizing receptor potentials derives from the interaction between gustatory receptor current and slow hyperpolarizing current in frog taste cells and that the interaction is stronger for NaCl and acetic acid stimulations than for Q-HCl and sucrose stimulations.

Rat Adrenal Chromaffin Cells Are Neonatal CO2Sensors

We studied the participation of adrenal medulla (AM) chromaffin cells in hypercapnic chemotransduction. Using amperometric recordings, we measured catecholamine (CAT) secretion from cells in AM slices of neonatal and adult rats perfused with solutions bubbled with different concentrations of CO2. The secretory activity augmented from 1.74 +/- 0.19 pC/min at 5% CO2 to 6.36 +/- 0.77 pC/min at 10% CO2. This response to CO2 was dose dependent and appeared without changes in extracellular pH, although it was paralleled by a drop in intracellular pH. Responsiveness to hypercapnia was higher in neonatal than in adult slices. The secretory response to hypercapnia required extracellular Ca2+ influx. Both the CO2-induced internal pH drop and increase in CAT secretion were markedly diminished by methazolamide (2 microm), a membrane-permeant carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitor. We detected the presence of two CA isoforms (CAI and CAII) in neonatal AM slices by in situ hybridization and real-time PCR. The expression of these enzymes decreased in adult AM together with the disappearance of responsiveness to CO2. In patch-clamped chromaffin cells, hypercapnia elicited a depolarizing receptor potential, which led to action potential firing, extracellular Ca2+ influx, and CAT secretion. This receptor potential (inhibited by methazolamide) was primarily attributable to activation of a resting cationic conductance. In addition, voltage-gated K+ current amplitude was also decreased by high CO2. The CO2-sensing properties of chromaffin cells may be of physiologic relevance, particularly for the adaptation of neonates to extrauterine life, before complete maturation of peripheral and central chemoreceptors.

Cyclic AMP Cascade Mediates the Inhibitory Odor Response of Isolated Toad Olfactory Receptor Neurons

Odor stimulation may excite or inhibit olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). It is well established that the excitatory response involves a cyclic AMP (cAMP) transduction mechanism that activates a nonselective cationic cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) conductance, accompanied by the activation of a Ca2+-dependent Cl(-) conductance, both causing a depolarizing receptor potential. In contrast, odor inhibition is attributed to a hyperpolarizing receptor potential. It has been proposed that a Ca2+-dependent K+ (K(Ca)) conductance plays a key role in odor inhibition, both in toad and rat isolated olfactory neurons. The mechanism underlying odor inhibition has remained elusive. We assessed its study using various pharmacological agents and caged compounds for cAMP, Ca2+, and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (InsP3) on isolated toad ORNs. The odor-triggered K(Ca) current was reduced on exposing the cell either to the CNG channel blocker LY83583 (20 microM) or to the adenylyl cyclase inhibitor SQ22536 (100 microM). Photorelease of caged Ca2+ activated a Cl- current sensitive to niflumic acid (10 microM) and a K+ current blockable by charybdotoxin (20 nM) and iberiotoxin (20 nM). In contrast, photoreleased Ca2+ had no effect on cells missing their cilia, indicating that these conductances are confined to the cilia. Photorelease of cAMP induced a charybdotoxin-sensitive K+ current in intact ORNs. Photorelease of InsP3 did not increase the membrane conductance of olfactory neurons, arguing against a direct role of InsP3 in chemotransduction. We conclude that a cAMP cascade mediates the activation of the ciliary Ca2+-dependent K+ current and that the Ca2+ ions that activate the inhibitory current enter the cilia through CNG channels.

The excitation cascade of Limulus ventral photoreceptors: guanylate cyclase as the link between InsP3-mediated Ca2+ release and the opening of cGMP-gated channels

BackgroundEarly stages in the excitation cascade of Limulus photoreceptors are mediated by activation of Gq by rhodopsin, generation of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate by phospholipase-C and the release of Ca2+. At the end of the cascade, cGMP-gated channels open and generate the depolarizing receptor potential. A major unresolved issue is the intermediate process by which Ca2+ elevation leads to channel opening.ResultsTo explore the role of guanylate cyclase (GC) as a potential intermediate, we used the GC inhibitor guanosine 5'-tetraphosphate (GtetP). Its specificity in vivo was supported by its ability to reduce the depolarization produced by the phosphodiesterase inhibitor IBMX. To determine if GC acts subsequent to InsP3 production in the cascade, we examined the effect of intracellular injection of GtetP on the excitation caused by InsP3 injection. This form of excitation and the response to light were both greatly reduced by GtetP, and they recovered in parallel. Similarly, GtetP reduced the excitation caused by intracellular injection of Ca2+. In contrast, this GC inhibitor did not affect the excitation produced by injection of a cGMP analog.ConclusionWe conclude that GC is downstream of InsP3-induced Ca2+ release and is the final enzymatic step of the excitation cascade. This is the first invertebrate rhabdomeric photoreceptor for which transduction can be traced from rhodopsin photoisomerization to ion channel opening.

Desensitization of the photoresponse in Limulus ventral photoreceptors by protein kinase C precedes rhabdomere disorganization and endocytosis.

Limulus photoreceptors utilize the phosphoinositide pathway to generate light-induced single photon events (quantum bumps) that sum to form the depolarizing receptor potential. The protein kinase C (PKC) activator, (-)-indolactam V (ILV) rapidly desensitizes the light response in Limulus ventral nerve photoreceptors. Within 10 min of extracellular application, 100 nM (-)-ILV caused a decrease in the mean amplitude of quantum bumps to 38% of control values. PKC activation by (-)-ILV also causes photosensitive membrane disorganization and endocytosis. To investigate whether this precedes desensitization of the electrical response, we fixed cells after 10-min incubation with 25 microM (-)-ILV, a concentration sufficient to cause a 1000-fold desensitization of the receptor potential. The photosensitive microvilli of these photoreceptors remained narrow, densely packed, and well organized. Increasing the incubation time to 60 min did, however, induce disorganization and swelling of the microvilli and endocytosis of the photosensitive membrane, as previously reported. Measurement of membrane capacitance did not indicate a significant reduction in membrane area accompanying desensitization by (-)-ILV. PKC-induced reduction in light sensitivity therefore precedes the detection of ultrastructural changes in the rhabdomeral membrane and is not due to a net loss of membrane.

PPNDS is an agonist, not an antagonist, for the ATP receptor of Paramecium.

Paramecium represents a simple, eukaryotic model system to study the cellular effects of some neuroactive drugs. They respond to the agonist beta,gamma-methylene ATP with a transient depolarizing receptor potential, Ca(2+)-based action potentials and repetitive bouts of forward and backward swimming called 'avoiding reactions' (AR). In vivo [(32)P]ATP binding assays showed saturable [(32)P]ATP binding with an apparent K(d) of approximately 23 nmol l(-1). Prolonged (15 min) exposure to 25 micro mol l(-1) beta,gamma-methylene ATP caused behavioral adaptation and losses of AR, ATP receptor potentials and [(32)P]ATP binding. While screening various ATP receptor inhibitors, we found that the P2X1 'antagonist' pyridoxal-phosphate naphthylazo-nitro-disulfate (PPNDS) is actually an agonist, producing the same responses as beta,gamma-methylene ATP. [(32)P]ATP binding assays suggest that both agonists may bind to the same site as [(32)P]ATP. Cross-adaptation is also seen between PPNDS and beta,gamma-methylene ATP in terms of losses in AR, depolarizing receptor potentials and [(32)P]ATP binding. We conclude that the inhibition caused by PPNDS in Paramecium is due to agonist-induced desensitization. Either this represents a unique new class of ATP receptors, in which PPNDS is an agonist instead of an antagonist, or PPNDS (and other drugs like it) may actually be an agonist in many other cell types in which prolonged exposure is necessary for inhibition.

Whole-cell recording from honeybee olfactory receptor neurons: ionic currents, membrane excitability and odourant response in developing workerbee and drone.

Whole-cell recording techniques were used to characterize ionic membrane currents and odourant responses in honeybee olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) in primary cell culture. ORNs of workerbee (female) and drone (male) were isolated at an early stage of development before sensory axons connect to their target in the antennal lobe. The results collectively indicate that honeybee ORNs have electrical properties similar, but not necessarily identical to, those currently envisaged for ORNs of other species. Under voltage clamp at least four ionic currents could be distinguished. Inward currents were made of a fast transient, tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium current. In some ORNs a cadmium-sensitive calcium current was detected. ORNs showed heterogeneity in their outward currents: either outward currents were made of a delayed rectifier type potassium current, which was partially blocked by tetraethyl ammonium or quinidine, or were composed of a delayed rectifier type and a transient calcium-dependent potassium current, which was cadmium-sensitive and abolished by removal of external calcium. The proportion of each of the two outward currents, however, was different within the ORNs of the two sexes suggesting a gender-specific functional heterogeneity. ORNs showed heterogeneity in action potential firing properties: depolarizing current steps elicited either one action potential or, as in most of the cells, it led to repetitive spiking. Action potentials were tetrodotoxin-sensitive suggesting they are carried by sodium. Odourant stimulation with different mixtures and pure substances evoked depolarizing receptor potentials with superimposed action potentials when spike threshold was reached. In summary, honeybee ORNs are remarkably mature at early stages in their development.

Non-synaptic transformation of gustatory receptor potential by stimulation of the parasympathetic fiber of the frog glossopharyngeal nerve.

When the glossopharyngeal nerve (GP) in the frog was strongly stimulated electrically, slow potentials were elicited from the tongue surface and taste cells in the fungiform papillae. Injection of atropine completely blocked these slow potentials. The present and previous data indicate that the slow potentials induced in the tongue surface and taste cells are due to a liquid junction potential between saliva secreted from the lingual glands due to parasympathetic fiber activity and an adapting solution on the tongue surface. Intracellularly recorded depolarizing receptor potentials in taste cells induced by 0.5 M NaCl and 3 mM acetic acid were enhanced by depolarizing slow potentials induced by GP nerve stimulation, but were depressed by the hyperpolarizing slow potentials. On average, the receptor potential of taste cells for 0.5 M NaCl was increased by 25% by the GP nerve-induced slow potential, but the receptor potential of taste cells for 3 mM acetic acid was decreased by 1% by the slow potential. These transformations of receptor potentials in frog taste cells were not due to a synaptic event initiated between taste cells and the efferent nerve fiber, but due to a non-synaptic event, a lingual junction potential generated in the dorsal lingual epithelium by GP nerve stimulation.

Chemosensory responses of Tetrahymena thermophila to CB2, a 24-amino-acid fragment of lysozyme.

While lysozyme is a depolarizing chemorepellent in Tetrahymena, the entire lysozyme molecule is not necessary to activate the lysozyme receptor. Reduced lysozyme was cut into three fragments by cyanogen bromide cleavage and the fragments (CB1, CB2 and CB3) were separated by HPLC. Behavioral bioassays showed that the carboxy-terminal 24-amino-acid fragment, which we call CB2, is 100 times more active than intact lysozyme as a chemorepellent. CB2 appears to activate the same receptor as lysozyme because behavioral cross-adaptation is seen between these two compounds and an antibody generated to the purified lysozyme receptor blocks responses to both lysozyme and CB2. This is further supported by the observation that neomycin, which is a competitive inhibitor of lysozyme binding, also inhibits CB2 responses. This inhibition may be due to the fact that neomycin is highly positively charged (+5 at pH 7.0) and CB2 has a net charge of +4 at pH 7.0. Intracellular electrophysiological recordings documented that CB2 elicits a transient, depolarizing receptor potential that is similar to the lysozyme-induced depolarizations except they are much smaller. CB2 is a more potent and specific ligand for use in studies of the lysozyme receptor of Tetrahymena.

Stimulus processing by type II hair cells in the mouse utricle.

In type II and neonatal hair cells in the mouse utricle, the receptor potentials evoked by low-frequency sinusoidal deflections of the hair bundle are attenuated by adaptation of the mechanoelectrical transduction current and the voltage-dependent activation of a large potassium (K)-selective outwardly rectifying conductance, gDR. These processes may contribute to high-pass filtering of the responses of some utricular afferents to sinusoidal linear accelerations below 2 Hz. Depolarizing receptor potentials are more attenuated by gDR than are hyperpolarizing receptor potentials. It may therefore reduce nonlinear distortion introduced by mechanoelectrical transduction, which generates larger depolarizing currents than hyperpolarizing currents. The discharge properties of utricular afferents vary according to whether they innervate the striolar or extrastriolar zones of the sensory epithelium. Regional variation in hair-cell properties is likely to contribute. Preliminary results suggest that the outwardly rectifying K conductances of type II cells are slower and larger in the striola than in the extrastriola, consistent with regional variation in the relative numbers of delayed rectifier and A-current K channels.