Cochabamba Department Research Articles

Participación de género en Organizaciones Territoriales de Base del Distrito 9

In recent decades, urbanization processes have been developed based on settlements of social groups at a local level, which share their own cultures and values. The objective is to identify the factors that influence gender participation in Territorial Base Organizations (OTB) of District 9 as spaces of power in the Kanata province of the department of Cochabamba. The approach is mixed, combining qualitative and quantitative methods for the analysis and processing of information. The population consisted of 9 members of the OTB. Among the findings, it was observed that the processes of discrimination and violence against women develop in a very subtle way, so in some cases they have been forced to resign from their positions. In conclusion, despite regulatory advances, such as Law 243 against harassment and political violence towards women, deep gender inequalities persist in these spaces of local power.

Did the COVID-19 quarantine policies applied in Cochabamba, Bolivia mitigated cases successfully? an interrupted time series analysis

ABSTRACT Background The COVID-19 pandemic prompted varied policy responses globally, with Latin America facing unique challenges. A detailed examination of these policies’ impacts on health systems is crucial, particularly in Bolivia, where information about policy implementation and outcomes is limited. Objective To describe the COVID-19 testing trends and evaluate the effects of quarantine measures on these trends in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Methods Utilizing COVID-19 testing data from the Cochabamba Department Health Service for the 2020–2022 period. Stratified testing rates in the health system sectors were first estimated followed by an interrupted time series analysis using a quasi-Poisson regression model for assessing the quarantine effects on the mitigation of cases during surge periods. Results The public sector reported the larger percentage of tests (65%), followed by the private sector (23%) with almost double as many tests as the public-social security sector (11%). In the time series analysis, a correlation between the implementation of quarantine policies and a decrease in the slope of positive rates of COVID-19 cases was observed compared to periods without or with reduced quarantine policies. Conclusion This research underscores the local health system disparities and the effectiveness of stringent quarantine measures in curbing COVID-19 transmission in the Cochabamba region. The findings stress the importance of the measures’ intensity and duration, providing valuable lessons for Bolivia and beyond. As the global community learns from the pandemic, these insights are critical for shaping resilient and effective health policy responses.

Dryophylax chaquensis (Bergna & Álvarez, 1993) (Serpentes, Colubridae): first record from Cochabamba Department and a geographic range extension in Bolivia

We present novel distributional information on the little-known snake species Dryophylax chaquensis (Bergna & Álvarez, 1993) in Bolivia, including the first record from Cochabamba Department. Our record extends the distribution of this species towards the Bolivian Inter-Andean Dry Forests by approximately 63 km to the west (in a straight line) from the nearest known locality in Vallegrande, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. We comment on the biogeographic distribution, altitude of occurrence, and aspects behavior and natural history of D. chaquensis in Bolivia.

First formal evidence and distribution extension of Erythrolamprus macrosomus (Amaral, 1936) (Serpentes: Dipsadidae) in Bolivia

Erythrolamprus macrosomus (Amaral, 1936) is a snake recently revalidated to the species level, with a known distribution in Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. We discovered a single specimen in Bolivia from the Department of Cochabamba, that corroborates this species in the country and extends its distribution westward.

Improving Productivity of Small Farmers by Bio-Rational Soil Management: II. The Case of Horticultural Crops

Production of horticultural crops in the Andean region of Bolivia is low as a result of various abiotic and biotic soil constraints, and the recourse to pesticides and fertilizers is frequently too expensive. Agricultural soils in this region of Bolivia are generally characterized by a low fertility with low content of organic matter and yields of most crops are limited. Therefore, it was proposed a recycling of organic waste into compost and the use of natural microbial soil inhabitants, - AMF and PGPR - to reduce chemical–dependence of small-scale agriculturists Several field trials located in Cochabamba department (Bolivia) with different horticultural crops were conducted. After four years. farmers are able to prepare with post-harvest organic residues and animal manures their own compost for its field incorporation at planting time (7-10 t/ ha). Several native isolates of PGPR and AMF were identified (B. amyloliquefaciens & G. intraradices, respectively). However with a commercial B. subtilis product (BZF 24WP), which later on was locally multiplied and formulated, and a Bolivian commercial mycorrhiza of G. fasciculatum (DESAmic), a biofertilizer was formulated and evaluated in several trials with different horticultural and orchard crops in farmer fields showed both plant growth promoting effect (horticultural and orchard crops:42.0 to 98.0 %). It was also observed a suppressive/inhibitory soil borne diseases effect. Therefore, it was also showed that micro-scale composting production based on organic waste from rural post-harvest residues in combination with animal manures, represent an alternative to chemical fertilizers

Essential Oils from Bolivia. XV. Herzogole, an Original Monoterpene Benzodioxole from an Essential Oil from Pentacalia herzogii (Cabrera) Cuatrec.

Over 15 years, with the support of a Canadian funding agency, the Universidad Mayor de San Simón, in Bolivia, undertook a large survey of aromatic plants of the South American country. More than a hundred species were studied under various aspects, including the production and characterization of essential oils. As part of this survey, the chemical composition of an essential oil sample obtained from Pentacalia herzogii (Asteraceae) growing wild in the High Valley region of the department of Cochabamba was determined by a combination of GC and GC-MS measurements. α-Pinene was the main constituent of this essential oil (34%), accompanied by limonene (22%) and germacrene D (7.5%) as well as an important fraction of methoxylated monoterpenoids. They were mainly isomers of thymol methyl ether, accounting for 13% of the chromatogram. A new quantitatively important compound (9%) was identified through NMR and chemical synthesis as 4-isopropyl-6-methylbenzo[d][1,3]dioxole, and designated herzogole, alongside the minor related compound 1-isopropyl-2,3-dimethoxy-5-methylbenzene. The monoterpene benzodioxole featured a distinctive green-phenolic aroma which could raise interest for fragrance use. Since these compounds were not known naturally, a biosynthetic mechanism of their formation was proposed and put in perspective to illustrate the metabolic originality of P. herzogii.

Needs and resources of people with type 2 diabetes in peri-urban Cochabamba, Bolivia: a people-centred perspective

BackgroundThe rising prevalence of type 2 diabetes results in a worldwide public healthcare crisis, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) with unprepared and overburdened health systems mainly focused on infectious diseases and maternal and child health. Studies regarding type 2 diabetes in LMICs describe specific interventions ignoring a comprehensive analysis of the local factors people see influential to their health. This study aims to meet this research gap by exploring what people with type 2 diabetes in Bolivia need to maintain or improve their health, how important they perceive those identified needs and to what extent these needs are met.MethodsFrom March until May 2019, 33 persons with type 2 diabetes from three periurban municipalities of the department of Cochabamba participated in this study. The concept mapping methodology by Trochim, a highly structured qualitative brainstorming method, was used to generate and structure a broad range of perspectives on what the participants considered instrumental for their health.ResultsThe brainstorming resulted in 156 original statements condensed into 72 conceptually different needs and resources, structured under nine conceptual clusters and four action domains. These domains illustrated with vital needs were: (1) self-management with use of plants and the possibility to measure sugar levels periodically; (2) healthcare providers with the need to trust and receive a uniform diagnosis and treatment plan; (3) health system with opportune access to care and (4) community with community participation in health and safety, including removal of stray dogs.ConclusionsThis study identifies mostly contextual factors like low literacy levels, linguistic problems in care, the need to articulate people’s worldview including traditional use of natural remedies with the Bolivian health system and the lack of expertise on type 2 diabetes by primary health care providers. Understanding the needs and structuring them in different areas wherein action is required serves as a foundation for the planning and evaluation of an integrated people centred care program for people with type 2 diabetes. This participative method serves as a tool to implement the often theoretical concept of integrated people centred health care in health policy and program development.

Strengthening the Bolivian pharmacovigilance system: New surveillance strategies to improve care for Chagas disease and tuberculosis.

Chagas disease (CD) and tuberculosis (TB) are important health problems in Bolivia. Current treatments for both infections require a long period of time, and adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are frequent. This study aims to strengthen the Bolivian pharmacovigilance system, focusing on CD and TB. A situation analysis of pharmacovigilance in the Department of Cochabamba was performed. The use of a new local case report form (CRF) was implemented, together with the CRF established by the Unidad de Medicamentos y Tecnología en Salud (UNIMED), in several healthcare centers. Training and follow-up on drug safety monitoring and ADR reporting was provided to all health professionals involved in CD and TB treatment. A comparative analysis of the reported ADRs using the CRF provided by UNIMED, the new CRF proposal, and medical records, was also performed. Our results showed that out of all patients starting treatment for CD, 37.9% suffered ADRs according to the medical records, and 25.3% of them were classified as moderate/severe (MS). Only 47.4% of MS ADRs were reported to UNIMED. Regarding TB treatment, 9.9% of all patients suffered ADRs, 44% of them were classified as MS, and 75% of MS ADRs were reported to UNIMED. These findings show that the reinforcement of the Bolivian pharmacovigilance system is an ambitious project that should involve a long-term perspective and the engagement of national health workers and other stakeholders at all levels. Continuity and perseverance are essential to achieve a solid ADR reporting system, improving patient safety, drug efficacy and adherence to treatment.

Trabajadoras sexuales de Cochabamba: una aproximación sociodemográfica

Objetivos: identificar el perfil sociodemográfico de las trabajadoras sexuales del departamento de Cochabamba. Método: el estudio fue no experimental, transversal y descriptivo, realizado en el Centro Departamental de Vigilancia, Información y Referencia - CDVIR, con una muestra de 433 trabajadoras sexuales. Presenta un nivel de confianza de 95% y error muestral de 4,63%. El instrumento fue un cuestionario autoaplicable validado por el Comité de Docencia e Investigación del Instituto Psiquiátrico San Juan de Dios, en el cual se utilizaron variables que fueron sometidas a estudios de frecuencias y medidas de tendencia central y dispersión. Se cumplieron con los principios de la Declaración de Helsinki. Resultados: las trabajadoras sexuales son jóvenes, provenientes de la zona urbana de las ciudades del eje troncal del país, no tienen compañero fijo, tienen hijos, un alto nivel de escolaridad, no practican ninguna religión, consumen bebidas alcohólicas con regularidad, iniciaron la vida laboral y el trabajo sexual a temprana edad, sin familiares conocedores del trabajo, menos de cinco años de ejercicio de la actividad, deseos de dejar el trabajo sexual, pero sin condiciones de hacerlo por las necesidades económicas. Conclusiones: las mujeres que ejercen el trabajo sexual tienen una carga familiar alta y dificultades de acceder al mercado laboral formal para generar ingresos para subsistir y mantener la prole, resultado de la feminización de la pobreza, del machismo de la sociedad y estilo social patriarcal, asociado al desamparo del Estado. Es necesario cambiar el paradigma de la mujer en la sociedad para cambiar esta realidad.

Underpinnings of entangled ethnical and gender inequalities in obesity in Cochabamba-Bolivia: an intersectional approach

BackgroundSocial inequalities in obesity have been observed not only by gender but also between ethnic groups. Evidence on combined dimensions of inequality in health, and specifically including indigenous populations, is however scarce, and presents a particularly daunting challenge for successful prevention and control of obesity in Bolivia, as well as worldwide.ObjectiveThe aims of this study were i) to examine intersectional inequalities in obesity and ii) to identify the factors underlying the observed intersectional inequalities.MethodsAn intersectional approach study was employed, using the information collected in a cross-sectional community-based survey. The sample consisted of youth and adults with permanent residence in Cochabamba department (N = 5758), selected through a multistage sampling technique. An adapted version of the WHO-STEPS survey was used to collect information about Abdominal obesity and risk factors associated. Four intersectional positions were constructed from gender (woman vs. men) and ethnic group (indigenous vs. mestizo). Joint and excess intersectional disparities in obesity were estimated as absolute prevalence differences between binary groups, using binomial regression models. The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition was applied to estimate the contributions of explanatory factors underlying the observed intersectional disparities, using Oaxaca command in Stata software v15.1.ResultsThe prevalence of abdominal obesity had a higher prevalence in mestizos (men 35.01% and women 30.71%) as compared to indigenous (men 25.38% and women 27.75%). The joint disparity was estimated at 7.26 percentage points higher prevalence in the doubly advantaged mestizo men than in the doubly disadvantaged indigenous women. The gender referent disparity showed that mestizo-women had a higher prevalence than indigenous-women. The ethnic referent disparity showed that mestizo-men had a higher prevalence than indigenous men. The behavioural risk factors were the most important to explain the observed inequalities, while differences in socioeconomic and demographic factors played a less important role.ConclusionOur study illustrates that abdominal obesity is not distributed according to expected patterns of structural disadvantage in the intersectional space of ethnicity and gender in Bolivia. In the Cochabamba case, a high social advantage was related to higher rates of abdominal obesity, as well as the behavioural risk factors associated with them.

Raising chickens for increased egg consumption in a rural highland Bolivian population

In highland Bolivia a three-year nutrition-sensitive agricultural intervention was carried out with rural families in which chicken rearing was promoted in order to increase egg consumption. Here we report on the impact of the intervention on participants’ diets. The non-randomized intervention took place in 21 rural communities in the province of Tapacari in the department of Cochabamba, Bolivia. Intervention communities had staggered start times, with two communities starting in 2013, three communities starting in 2014 and sixteen communities starting in 2015. Twenty-four hour dietary recall data were collected from all individuals in 22 households in two communities in February/March 2013, 33 households in three communities in February/March 2014, and 66 households in fourteen communities in February/March 2015. We tested for changes from 2013 to 2014 to 2015 in consumption of 10 food groups in children under 6 years, adult men and adult women. By endline, egg production was established in ~80% of the intervention households. From baseline to endline egg consumption increased to approximately one-half egg/person/day: in children from 7 to 33 g/day, in women from 6 to 33 g/day, and in men from 6 to 39 g/day. Despite the increased intake in eggs, intake of most nutrients did not change. Higher egg consumption would be required to produce observable average increases in nutrient intake.

Incidence and Mortality Rates and Clinical Characteristics of Type 1 Diabetes among Children and Young Adults in Cochabamba, Bolivia.

Objectives To determine incidence, mortality, and clinical status of youth with diabetes at the Centro Vivir con Diabetes, Cochabamba, Bolivia, with support from International Diabetes Federation Life for a Child Program. Methods Incidence/mortality data analysis of all cases (<25 year (y)) diagnosed January 2005–February 2017 and cross-sectional data (December 2015). Results Over 12.2 years, 144 cases with type 1 diabetes (T1D) were diagnosed; 43.1% were male. Diagnosis age was 0.3–22.2 y; peak was 11-12 y. 11.1% were <5 y; 29.2%, 5–<10 y; 43.1%, 10–<15 y; 13.2%, 15–<20 y; and 3.5%, 20–<25 y. The youngest is being investigated for monogenic diabetes. Measured incidence in Cercado Province (Cochabamba Department) was 2.2/100,000 children < 15 y/y, with ≈80% ascertainment, giving total incidence of 2.7/100,000 children < 15 y/y. Two had died. Crude mortality rate was 2.3/1000 patient years. Clinical data on 141 cases <35 y: mean/median HbA1c was 8.5/8.2% (69/62 mmol/mol), levels higher in adolescents. Three were on renal replacement therapy; four others had substantial renal impairment. Elevated BMI, triglycerides, and cholesterol were common: 19.1%, 18.3%, and 39.1%, respectively. Conclusions Bolivia has low T1D incidence. Reasonable glycemic control is being achieved despite limited resources; however, some have serious complications and adverse cardiovascular risk factor profiles. Further attention is needed for complications.

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Consumption of Native and Traditional Crops in Bolivia Varies Along an Ecoregional Gradient

BackgroundAgro biodiversity may play an important role in human nutrition and food security. However, research documenting relationships between genetically diverse crop varieties and nutrition and food security of contemporary populations is limited.ObjectiveThis project sought to measure the contribution of native and traditional crops to the diets and nutritional quality of residents of the Bolivian Andes; to determine whether the contribution varies according to the ecological region of a household's residence; and to investigate the relationships between the consumption of native and traditional crops and the growth of children under 5.MethodsThe study was carried out in the rural municipality of Colomi, department of Cochabamba, and the departmental capital, Cochabamba City. The nine sites spanned 86 km along the national highway, and covered an altitudinal range of 2200–4200 meters above sea level (masl), with sub‐tropical, inter‐Andean valley, and high‐altitude puna ecotypes. Two household‐level surveys were conducted, one in the 2013 post‐planting season (Nov–Dec) and the other in the 2014 post‐harvest season (May–July). Surveys with female household heads or food preparers collected information on household socio‐demographics, wealth and expenditures, 24‐hour recall of all foods prepared or consumed at the household level, and height and weight measurements of children under the age of 5. Survey and anthropometric data were entered into excel and data analysis was undertaken with SPSS (v23) and ENA SMART software. A Kruskal‐Wallis means test (for non‐normally distributed data) and multiple linear regression were used for analysis. Each household's total caloric consumption for the day prior to the survey was calculated from the 2014 post‐harvest data, coding each ingredient as “native,” “processed,” or belonging to another category. A fixed effects model was used to assess the relationship between native crop consumption and child growth, adjusting for age, sex, ecoregion, household, and household total calories per adult equivalent.ResultsNative foods contributed an average of 27.3% (SD ±0.110) of the calories available in households the day prior to the survey. This contribution ranged from a low value of 15.0% in urban areas, to a high of 52.4% in the high‐altitude puna communities. There were significant differences in the percent caloric contribution of native crops to households’ diets among sites (Kruskal‐Walis test, p&lt;0.01), as well as in all other categories of foods, with the exception of “Andeanized” food products. HAZ was positively associated with percent consumption of native crops (p&lt;0.05), and consumption of Andeanized, introduced, and animal‐source foods (p&lt;0.01). There was no association between native crop consumption and WHZ.ConclusionsNative and traditional crops make an important contribution to caloric availability across all ecoregions studied. However, dietary profiles differ significantly by region, with native crops making a larger contribution in the rural and highland areas than in urban or urbanizing sites.Support or Funding InformationThis project was funded by the National Science Foundation (DDIG in Geography #1131153), the Wilbur G. Downs Fellowship; the Yale‐NYBG Cullman Fellowship; the Yale McMillan Center International Dissertation Research Fellowship; the Yale Tropical Resources Institute; the Yale Program in Agrarian Studies; and the Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies.

Attalea blepharopus Mart. (Arecaceae) from Bolivia Revisited since Martius

Abstract Moraes R., M. & J.-C. Pintaud (2016). Attalea blepharopus Mart. (Arecaceae) from Bolivia revisited since Martius. Candollea 71: 27–32. In English, English abstract. DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.15553/c2016v711a6 Populations in Bolivia of an Attalea Kunth species (Arecaceae) with regularly spaced pinnae were historically assigned to Attalea butyracea (Mutis) Wess. Boer, which also occurs in Colombia, western Venezuela and northern Ecuador. During a recent fieldtrip to the Chapare province in Cochabamba department (central Bolivia), we visited the Yuracare people's territory that Alcide d'Orbigny mentioned as harboring a large and distinct palm, Attalea blepharopus Mart. Based on its morphology, we recognize the species as distinct from Attalea butyracea and designate a lectotype based on the original illustrations and an epitype based on a recent complete collection. The species is described in details and illustrated with photographs for the first time. Received: November 2, 2015; Accepted: Decembe...

Intradomiciliary and peridomiciliary captures of sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in the leishmaniasis endemic area of Chapare province, tropic of Cochabamba, Bolivia

In South America, cutaneous leishmaniasis is the most frequent clinical form of leishmaniasis. Bolivia is one of the countries with higher incidence, with 33 cases per 100,000 individuals, and the disease is endemic in 70% of the territory. In the last decade, the number of cases has increased, the age range has expanded, affecting children under 5 years old, and a similar frequency between men and women is found. An entomological study with CDC light traps was conducted in three localities (Chipiriri, Santa Elena and Pedro Domingo Murillo) of the municipality of Villa Tunari, one of the main towns in the Chapare province (Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia). A total of 16 specimens belonging to 6 species of the genus Lutzomyia were captured: Lu. aragaoi, Lu. andersoni, Lu. antunesi, Lu. shawi, Lu. yuilli yuilli and Lu. auraensis. Our results showed the presence of two incriminated vectors of leishmaniasis in an urbanized area and in the intradomicile. More entomological studies are required in the Chapare province to confirm the role of vector sand flies, the intradomiciliary transmission of the disease and the presence of autochthonous cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis.

Effect of the management of seed flows and mode of propagation on the genetic diversity in an Andean farming system: the case of oca (Oxalis tuberosa Mol.)

The seed system is a major component of traditional management of crop genetic diversity in developing countries. Seed flows are an important part of this system. They have been poorly studied for minor Andean crops, especially those that are propagated vegetatively. We examine the seed exchanges of Oxalis tuberosa Mol. (oca), a vegetatively propagated crop capable of sexual reproduction. We studied the seed exchanges of four rural communities in Candelaria district (Cochabamba department, Bolivia) at the international and local levels, emphasizing the spread of new sexually-produced genotypes through these exchanges. Interviews with 44 farmers generated socioeconomic, agronomic, crop diversity and seed exchange information, and data on the potential incorporation of new sexually-produced genotypes in the crop germplasm. We interviewed merchants to evaluate the input and output of genetic diversity in the communities studied. Results showed a positive effect of the farmers’ wealth on the diversity cultivated and on seed exchanges. Most seed exchanges occurred at market, creating a distinction between cash and self-consumption landraces. Cash landraces were intensively exchanged; self-consumption landraces were isolated at the farmer level and prone to genetic drift and complete loss. Merchants exported seeds of cash landraces across Bolivia and into Peru and Argentina. New sexually produced genotypes are less incorporated into cash landraces than in self-consumed landraces. However, new genotypes incorporated into cash landraces are diffused faster and better, being more intensively exchanged. We propose conservation strategies that can be applied to other vegetatively propagated and minor Andean crops.

Susceptibility to deltamethrin of wild and domestic populations of Triatoma infestans of the Gran Chaco and the Inter-Andean Valleys of Bolivia.

BackgroundThe persistence of Triatoma infestans and the continuous transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Inter-Andean Valleys and in the Gran Chaco of Bolivia are of great significance. Coincidentally, it is in these regions the reach of the vector control strategies is limited, and reports of T. infestans resistance to insecticides, including in wild populations, have been issued. This study aims to characterize the susceptibility to deltamethrin of wild and domestic populations of T. infestans from Bolivia, in order to better understand the extent of this relevant problem.MethodsSusceptibility to deltamethrin was assessed in nine, wild and domestic, populations of T. infestans from the Gran Chaco and the Inter-Andean Valleys of Bolivia. Serial dilutions of deltamethrin in acetone (0.2 μL) were topically applied in first instar nymphs (F1, five days old, fasting, weight 1.2 ± 0.2 mg). Dose response results were analyzed with PROBIT version 2, determining the lethal doses, slope and resistance ratios (RR). Qualitative tests were also performed.ResultsThree wild T. infestans dark morph samples of Chaco from the Santa Cruz Department were susceptible to deltamethrin with RR50 of <2, and 100% mortality to the diagnostic dose (DD); however, two domestic populations from the same region were less susceptible than the susceptibility reference lineage (RR50 of 4.21 and 5.04 respectively and 93% DD). The domestic population of Villa Montes from the Chaco of the Tarija Department presented high levels of resistance (RR50 of 129.12 and 0% DD). Moreover, the domestic populations from the Valleys of the Cochabamba Department presented resistance (RR50 of 8.49 and 62% DD), the wild populations were less susceptible than SRL and T. infestans dark morph populations (RR50 < 5).ConclusionThe elimination of T. infestans with pyrethroid insecticides in Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and its drastic reduction in large parts of Paraguay and Argentina, clearly indicates that pyrethroid resistance was very uncommon in non-Andean regions. The pyrethroid susceptibility of non-Andean T. infestans dark morph population, and the resistance towards it, of Andean T. infestans wild and domestic populations, indicates that the Andean populations from Bolivia are less susceptible.

Acoustic properties of the vowel systems of Bolivian Quechua/Spanish bilinguals

This paper describes the vowel systems of Quechua/Spanish bilinguals in Cochabamba, Bolivia, and examines these systems to illuminate variation between phonemic and allophonic vowels in this Quechua variety. South Bolivian Quechua is described as phonemically trivocalic, and Bolivian Spanish is described as pentavocalic (Cerrón-Palomino 1994). Although South Bolivian Quechua has three vowel categories, Quechua uvular stop consonants promote high vowel lowering, effectively lowering /i/ and /u/ towards space otherwise occupied by /e/ and /o/ respectively, producing a system with five surface vowels but three phonemic vowels (Buckley 2000). The project was conducted with eleven Quechua/Spanish bilinguals from the Cochabamba department in Bolivia. Subjects participated in a Spanish to Quechua oral translation task and a word list task in Spanish. Results indicate that Quechua/Spanish bilinguals maintain separate vowel systems. In the Spanish vowel systems, each vowel occupies its own space and backness. A one-way ANOVA reveals that /i/ is higher and fronter than /e/, and /u/ is higher than /o/ (p<0.05). The Quechua vowel systems are somewhat more variable, with substantial overlap between /i/ and /e/, and between /u/ and /o/. Potential explanations for this result include lexical conditioning, speaker literacy effects, and differences in realizations of phonemic versus allophonic vowels.

Chagas Disease Vector Control in a Hyperendemic Setting: The First 11 Years of Intervention in Cochabamba, Bolivia

BackgroundChagas disease has historically been hyperendemic in the Bolivian Department of Cochabamba. In the early 2000s, an extensive vector control program was implemented; 1.34 million dwelling inspections were conducted to ascertain infestation (2000–2001/2003–2011), with blanket insecticide spraying in 2003–2005 and subsequent survey-spraying cycles targeting residual infestation foci. Here, we assess the effects of this program on dwelling infestation rates (DIRs).Methodology/Principal FindingsProgram records were used to calculate annual, municipality-level aggregate DIRs (39 municipalities); very high values in 2000–2001 (median: 0.77–0.69) dropped to ∼0.03 from 2004 on. A linear mixed model (with municipality as a random factor) suggested that infestation odds decreased, on average, by ∼28% (95% confidence interval [CI95] 6–44%) with each 10-fold increase in control effort. A second, better-fitting mixed model including year as an ordinal predictor disclosed large DIR reductions in 2001–2003 (odds ratio [OR] 0.11, CI95 0.06–0.19) and 2003–2004 (OR 0.22, CI95 0.14–0.34). Except for a moderate decrease in 2005–2006, no significant changes were detected afterwards. In both models, municipality-level DIRs correlated positively with previous-year DIRs and with the extent of municipal territory originally covered by montane dry forests.Conclusions/SignificanceInsecticide-spraying campaigns had very strong, long-lasting effects on DIRs in Cochabamba. However, post-intervention surveys consistently detected infestation in ∼3% of dwellings, underscoring the need for continuous surveillance; higher DIRs were recorded in the capital city and, more generally, in municipalities dominated by montane dry forest – an eco-region where wild Triatoma infestans are widespread. Traditional strategies combining insecticide spraying and longitudinal surveillance are thus confirmed as very effective means for area-wide Chagas disease vector control; they will be particularly beneficial in highly-endemic settings, but should also be implemented or maintained in other parts of Latin America where domestic infestation by triatomines is still commonplace.