Department For Environment , Food And Rural Affairs Research Articles

Assessing Scotland’s self-sufficiency of major food commodities

BackgroundAnalysis of food self-sufficiency at the regional level helps to better understand its dependency on, and vulnerability to, the food system. Moreover, achieving food self-sufficiency has gained prominence in the present policy agenda to increase resilience to adverse events and lower food resource footprint. Using a novel method, we estimated the food balance sheets of Scotland, the second-largest region in the United Kingdom, and assessed the self-sufficiency of major food commodities for the first time.MethodsData from 2003 to 2019 were obtained from Economic Reports on Scottish Agriculture and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)’s family food statistics. Food import and export data are not readily available for Scotland. Therefore, we developed a consumption-based approach to estimate the net trade values of each commodity. We also assessed the contribution of domestic production toward nutrient security.ResultsAccording to our estimates, Scotland is a net exporter of beef, exporting an average of 51.3 thousand tons per year. It is also a net exporter of cereal (wheat, barley, oats) and potatoes, although this was not always the case between 2003 and 2019. Scotland has a strong level of self-sufficiency in cereals, potatoes, lamb, beef, dairy, and eggs. However, there is room for improvement in achieving self-sufficiency in poultry and pork, where the self-sufficiency ratio is relatively low. Our analysis of nutrient security indicates that wheat and dairy sourced from Scotland play crucial roles in the food supply chain, markedly influencing total energy, dietary protein, and primary dietary fat sources.ConclusionsOur assessment can serve as a foundation for evidence-based decision-making in Scotland's agricultural and food policy. It offers insights into where investments and support may be needed to enhance domestic production and promote a resilient and sustainable food system. Estimated self-sufficiency ratios provide a more accurate assessment of the extent of food localization in Scotland. The method we developed in this study has the potential to be a valuable tool for future research studies, allowing for the estimation of regional-level food self-sufficiency even when trade data and food balance sheets are unavailable.

Integration of HEC-RAS and HEC-HMS with GIS in Flood Modeling and Flood Hazard Mapping

Floods are among the most devastating disasters in terms of socio-economics and casualties. However, these natural disasters can be managed and their effects can be minimized by flood modeling performed before the occurrence of a flood. In this study, flood modeling was developed for the Göksu River Basin, Mersin, Türkiye. Flood hazard and risk maps were prepared by using GIS, HEC-RAS, and HEC-HMS. In hydraulic modeling, Manning’s n values were obtained from 2018 CORINE data, return period flow rates (Q25, Q50, Q100, Q500) were obtained from HEC-HMS, and the application was carried out on a 5 m resolution digital surface model. In the study area, the water depths could reach up to 10 m, and water speeds were approximately 0.7 m/s. Considering these values and the fact that the study area is an urban area, hazard maps were obtained according to the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) method. The results indicated that possible flood flow rates from Q25 to Q500, from 1191.7 m3/s to 1888.3 m3/s, were detected in the study area with HEC-HMS. Flooding also occurred under conditions of the Q25 flow rate (from 4288 km2 to 5767 km2), and the impacted areas were classified as extremely risky by the DEFRA method.

Modernization of the “Noise Database for Prediction of Noise on Construction and Open Sites.”

The “Noise Database for Prediction of Noise on Construction and Open Sites” was prepared by Hepworth Acoustics Ltd in 2004, distributed by the UK Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), and updated in 2005 and 2006. It has been adopted worldwide and provides a degree of standardization of assumptions used for certain projects. With access to thousands of results from sound power testing done in general accordance with ISO methodology, which uses multiple microphone positions to account for directional noise emissions, there is a unique opportunity in Australia to significantly improve the quality of the database. Improvements to the database would include a broader range of equipment and larger sample sizes allowing a better understanding of statistical uncertainty, options for reasonable and feasible attenuation, and low-frequency noise components that the DEFRA database is currently lacking. This could be used as a reference for both acousticians and regulators to improve the quality and consistency of assumptions used in the assessment of noise impact from a wider range of projects.

Dynamic association of ambient air pollution with incidence and mortality of pulmonary hypertension: A multistate trajectory analysis

BackgroundThere is little evidence regarding the association between ambient air pollution and incidence and the mortality of pulmonary hypertension (PH). MethodsWe included 494,750 participants at baseline in the UK Biobank study. Exposures to PM2.5, PM10, NO2, and NOx were estimated at geocoded participants' residential addresses, utilizing pollution data provided by UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The outcomes were the incidence and mortality of PH. We used multivariate multistate models to investigate the impacts of various ambient air pollutants on both incidence and mortality of PH. ResultsDuring a median follow-up of 11.75 years, 2517 participants developed incident PH, and 696 died. We observed that all ambient air pollutants were associated with increased incidence of PH with different magnitudes, with adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) [95% confidence intervals (95% CIs)] for each interquartile range (IQR) increase of 1.73 (1.65, 1.81) for PM2.5, 1.70 (1.63, 1.78) for PM10, 1.42 (1.37, 1.48) for NO2, and 1.35 (1.31, 1.40) for NOx. Furthermore, PM2.5, PM10, NO2 and NO2 influenced the transition from PH to death, and the corresponding HRs (95% CIs) were 1.35 (1.25, 1.45), 1.31 (1.21, 1.41), 1.28 (1.20, 1.37) and 1.24 (1.17, 1.32), respectively. ConclusionThe results of our study indicate that exposure to various ambient air pollutants might play key but differential roles in both the incidence and mortality of PH.

Gaps in the governance of floods, droughts, and heatwaves in the United Kingdom

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) and equitable resilience have cross-cutting challenges relevant to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Sendai Framework (SF) and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA). The capacity of governments to assess, prevent, prepare, respond, and recover from disasters depends on effective laws, planning, policies, governance instruments, equity indicators, harmonized standards, and a holistic approach to cross-sectoral issues and multi-scalar challenges. The principle of subsidiarity guides the United Kingdom (UK) approach to disaster governance, with decisions taken at lowest level and coordinated at different scales (national, sub-national, local). Cross-scale work needed to address large-scale issues and enable the pooling of resources, happens at a sub-national tier created especially for this purpose. At national level, there is a government lead department for each risk identified in the National Risk Assessment, with Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) serving as the lead for floods and droughts, while the Department of Health and Social Care is the lead for heatwaves. In this paper we present the current state of the art of the governance of floods, droughts, and heatwaves in the UK, with a focus on pre-emergency phases and the shortage of indicators for assessment of the effectiveness of adaptation for all three disasters, which also compromise the realization and monitoring of targets across all three agendas. The governance of floods counts with the most developed legal framework of the three. Droughts are mainly dealt by the water sector, while heatwaves are treated exclusively as a health issue, leaving gaps with regards to the multiple risks these disasters pose to livelihoods and other sectors. Gaps and challenges that remain are related to siloed institutional approaches, lack of adaptation indicators, lack of cross-sectoral resilience standards, and lack of policy instruments and metrics to promote equitable resilience. Commonly, actions have mainly focused on the response and recovery strategies instead of risk reduction and adaptation to address rising vulnerabilities and exposure.

PFAS permitted to enter UK river

The chemical maker AGC Chemicals Europe is discharging almost 800 kg of ammonium difluoro[1,1,2,2-tetrafluoro- 2-(pentafluoroethoxy)ethoxy]acetate (EEA-NH 4 ) annually into the UK’s Wyre River from its facility near Blackpool and is doing so legally, according to the UK’s Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The discharge was identified by the Guardian newspaper and journalists at Watershed Investigations. Some per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) like EEA-NH 4 are known to be persistent in the environment, can accumulate in the human body, and have the potential to be hazardous. UK legislation currently restricts the release of only a handful of specific PFAS—such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS)—from among thousands of PFAS molecules. PFOA and PFOS have been largely phased out, and some chemical companies have replaced them with similar PFAS that are unregulated. EEA-NH 4 is an alternative to PFOA as a processing aid in fluoropolymer production.

Long-term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 severity: A cohort study in Greater Manchester, United Kingdom

Exposure to outdoor air pollution may affect incidence and severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this retrospective cohort based on patient records from the Greater Manchester Care Records, all first COVID-19 cases diagnosed between March 1, 2020 and May 31, 2022 were followed until COVID-19 related hospitalization or death within 28 days. Long-term exposure was estimated using mean annual concentrations of particulate matter with diameter ≤2.5 μm (PM2.5), ≤10 μm (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and benzene (C6H6) in 2019 using a validated air pollution model developed by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The association of long-term exposure to air pollution with COVID-19 hospitalization and mortality were estimated using multivariate logistic regression models after adjusting for potential individual, temporal and spatial confounders. Significant positive associations were observed between PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, benzene and COVID-19 hospital admissions with odds ratios (95% Confidence Intervals [CI]) of 1.27 (1.25–1.30), 1.15 (1.13–1.17), 1.12 (1.10–1.14), 1.16 (1.14–1.18), and 1.39 (1.36–1.42), (per interquartile range [IQR]), respectively. Significant positive associations were also observed between PM2.5, PM10, SO2, or benzene and COVID-19 mortality with odds ratios (95% CI) of 1.39 (1.31–1.48), 1.23 (1.17–1.30), 1.18 (1.12–1.24), and 1.62 (1.52–1.72), per IQR, respectively. Individuals who were older, overweight or obese, current smokers, or had underlying comorbidities showed greater associations between all pollutants of interest and hospital admission, compared to the corresponding groups. Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with developing severe COVID-19 after a positive SARS-CoV-2 infection, resulting in hospitalization or death.

The Climate Science for Ecological Forecasting symposium

The Climate Science for Ecological Forecasting symposium

Climate Change Mitigation by Quantification of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Office Operations of a Global Logistics Company

Climate change is a global phenomenon that affects all continents. Climate change has become the most discussed topic in the last decade, owing to the increasing probability of extreme events occurring. Mitigation of climate change focuses on avoiding and reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. The industrial sector significantly contributes to anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which are one of the primary causes of climate change. Calculating a company’s carbon footprint (CF) is an important step toward reducing quantifiable emissions because it indicates the contribution of each activity to GHG emissions. The objectives of this study were to identify the major contributors to organizational GHG emissions and provide possible solutions for emission reduction. This research examines the organizational CF of a logistics company for a year, from April 2020 to March 2021. That global company, which has more than 2,900 employees in 32 countries and provides freighting, warehousing, and other solutions to the community, contributes to GHG emissions through freight transport and office operations. Office operations were considered here, and operational boundaries were established within offices in fourteen countries. GHG Protocol was chosen as the methodology for quantifying the organization’s CF. GHG emitting activities were identified and classified into three categories under the GHG protocol. Secondary data was collected from the company database called Sustainable Management System for the calculation, and invoices and bills were checked to ensure data accuracy. To extract emission factors, publications from the United Kingdom's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), the Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority website, the Institute of Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) list of grid emission factors, and the World Bank Open Database were consulted. The annual carbon footprint was 3,710 tCO2e. The highest emission value resulted from indirect emissions associated with purchased electricity, which is 2,180 tCO2e and accounts for 58.8% of the company’s annual carbon footprint. The proportions of direct and other indirect emissions were reported to be 14.4%and 26.8%, respectively. Per capita consumption for the company was 2.18 tCO2e. The highest per capita consumption was reported from the stations in Sri Lanka which was 4.57 tCO2e. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, measures such as implementing solar energy systems and setting emission reduction targets are proposed as the major suggestions. This study is a part of the initiatives undertaken by the company to reduce its GHG emissions.
 Keywords: Carbon footprint, Climate change, Mitigation, GHG emissions

Application of Density Plots and Time Series Modelling to the Analysis of Nitrogen Dioxides Measured by Low-Cost and Reference Sensors in Urban Areas

Temporal variability of NO2 concentrations measured by 28 Envirowatch E-MOTEs, 13 AQMesh pods, and eight reference sensors (five run by Sheffield City Council and three run by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)) was analysed at different time scales (e.g., annual, weekly and diurnal cycles). Density plots and time variation plots were used to compare the distributions and temporal variability of NO2 concentrations. Long-term trends, both adjusted and non-adjusted, showed significant reductions in NO2 concentrations. At the Tinsley site, the non-adjusted trend was −0.94 (−1.12, −0.78) µgm−3/year, whereas the adjusted trend was −0.95 (−1.04, −0.86) µgm−3/year. At Devonshire Green, the non-adjusted trend was −1.21 (−1.91, −0.41) µgm−3/year and the adjusted trend was −1.26 (−1.57, −0.83) µgm−3/year. Furthermore, NO2 concentrations were analysed employing univariate linear and nonlinear time series models and their performance was compared with a more advanced time series model using two exogenous variables (NO and O3). For this purpose, time series data of NO, O3 and NO2 were obtained from a reference site in Sheffield, which were more accurate than the measurements from low-cost sensors and, therefore, more suitable for training and testing the model. In this article, the three main steps used for model development are discussed: (i) model specification for choosing appropriate values for p, d and q, (ii) model fitting (parameters estimation), and (iii) model diagnostic (testing the goodness of fit). The linear auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) performed better than the nonlinear counterpart; however, its performance in predicting NO2 concentration was inferior to ARIMA with exogenous variables (ARIMAX). Using cross-validation ARIMAX demonstrated strong association with the measured concentrations, with a correlation coefficient of 0.84 and RMSE of 9.90. ARIMAX can be used as an early warning tool for predicting potential pollution episodes in order to be proactive in adopting precautionary measures.

Impact of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones and Catchment Sensitive Farming on Water Quality in UK: Case Study of Ingbirchworth and Scout Dyke Reservoirs

The rivers and water streams are considered as a source of fresh drinking water for the human being on earth. The main source of water entering to these reservoirs is surface run off, snow melting and underground water. The water at the river’s mouth is generally in the form of small streams which are considered clean but as they flow down the catchment, pollutants and nutrients start to enter in larger amounts due to anthropogenic activities and advanced land use by human beings. As per inspection of chief inspector “Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI)” in 2016, out of more than 4600 water bodies and 3700 rivers in England, only one sixth could get “good” status and two third could get “moderate” status as per European union standards. This is though a good achievement in Europe but alarming also, as all rivers are required to have achieved specified “good” standards by 2021 (extended to 2027 for some categories). This phenomenon is pronouncing more complications in drinking water reservoirs or compensatory reservoirs from where water is taken out to utility companies and treated for domestic water supply incurring an enormous cost on its treatment before human consumption. The clean water standards can be achieved only if a strict control is implemented on entry of pollutants/ nutrients from surface run off using thorough catchment scale sensitive strategies. UK has been implementing strict measures under Environment Agency (EA), Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and other organizations like “Natural England”, “River Trust” and water utility/ supply companies to achieve desired standards of water quality in rivers by managing the whole catchment as per European union water framework directive (EU WFD) 2000.The catchment sensitive farming and nitrate vulnerable zones policies were started in 1992 and has been in full practice by implementing different stewardship schemes and fertilizers control measures in farmlands and arable lands. Ingbirchworth reservoir and Scout Dyke compensatory reservoir have been under catchment sensitive stewardship schemes to control quantities of nutrients especially nitrates and other pollutants since 2006 to maintain good quality water reservoirs for drinking and compensation to Don river. A partial success has been achieved in controlling the values of nitrates, phosphates, and suspended solids to enter from catchment farmlands by controlling the use of slurry/ fertilizers and implementation of good farming techniques. However, temporal and special variations show a variable result of presence of nitrates, phosphates and suspended solids at different streams in different times, more than specified limits of 11.3mg/L, 0.1mg/L and 25mg/L respectively. This requires more holistic efforts to control the bad practices in farming in adjacent farm/arable lands and improvements in stewardship schemes for catchment sensitive farming in Ingbirchworth areas.

Enabling Urban Social Farming: the need for radical green infrastructure in the city

With the global population set to reach 9.8 billion by 2050, there are concerns that health services are beginning to be stretched beyond working limits, particularly in the Global North, where many nations face ageing populations and similar obstacles. One suggested radical method to tackle these issues would be to provide access to Green Infrastructure (GI) interventions, including the development of social farms, particularly within urban areas and across deprived communities; enabling conventional health services to be supplemented by nature-based therapy. Social farms incapsulate this ideology, by enabling spaces for farming practices to also be used for therapeutic outcomes: providing care, rehabilitation, and even educational programmes. The focus here is around the concept of social prescribing, with activities within social farms, amongst other spaces such as community gardens and urban farms, acting as non-medical approaches to aid people with mental health or related conditions. Currently, research across social farming and social prescribing is relatively novel and therefore tends to be based in Scandinavian countries or the USA, in which these spaces are more readily available. This paper focuses on the concept of social farming, which has received increased attention in the UK context, particularly within the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) recent 25-year Environment Plan. The paper argues that there is a need for development of this practice within urban settings, with findings showing an agglomeration of sites in the rural context. In addition, we discuss tools for development and barriers, to illustrate opportunities for the future.

Evaluation of a Fecal Shedding Test To Detect Badger Social Groups Infected with Mycobacterium bovis.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an economically important disease affecting the cattle industry in England and Wales. bTB, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, also causes disease in the Eurasian badger (Meles meles), a secondary maintenance host. Disease transmission between these two species is bidirectional. Infected badgers shed M. bovis in their feces. The Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) of the United Kingdom organized a comparative trial to determine the performance of tests in detecting M. bovis in badger feces for the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Here, we assessed the performance of the existing Warwick Fast24-qPCR test and its modified version based on a high-throughput DNA extraction method (Fast96-qPCR). We found Fast24-qPCR to have a sensitivity of 96.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 94.5 to 99%; n = 244) and a specificity of 99% (95% CI, 97.8 to 100%; n = 292). Fast96-qPCR requires further optimization. Determining the disease status of badger social groups requires multiple tests per group. Therefore, to increase specificity further, we independently repeated the Fast24-qPCR test on positive samples, increasing stringency by requiring a second positive result. Fast24-qPCR with repeat testing had a sensitivity of 87.3% (95% CI, 83.1 to 91.5%; n = 244), and a specificity of 100% (95% CI, 100 to 100; n = 201) on an individual-sample level. At the social-group level, this repeat testing gives Fast24-qPCR high herd specificity, while testing multiple samples per group provides high herd sensitivity. With Fast24-qPCR, we provide a social-group-level test with sufficient specificity and sensitivity to monitor shedding in badgers via latrine sampling, delivering a potentially valuable tool to measure the impacts of bTB control measures.

From the Chief Executive and IFST News

From the Chief Executive and <scp>IFST</scp> News

Evidence Relating to Environmental Noise Exposure and Annoyance, Sleep Disturbance, Cardio-Vascular and Metabolic Health Outcomes in the Context of IGCB (N): A Scoping Review of New Evidence.

WHO published the Environmental Noise Guidelines for the European Region in 2018, based on seven systematic reviews including studies published between 2000 and 2014. Since then, new studies were published. At the request of the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), a review on annoyance, sleep disturbance, cardiovascular and metabolic effects in relation to environmental noise was prepared. The aim was to advise the Interdepartmental Group on Costs and Benefits Noise Subject Group (IGCB(N)) whether this new evidence warrants an update of their recommendations. Four databases for observational studies were screened and data were extracted on design, type and measurements of exposures and outcomes and confounders and their associations. The quality of the studies was indirectly assessed for cardiovascular and metabolic effects by only including studies with a case control or cohort design. For studies on annoyance and sleep disturbance, the risk of bias was expressed in exposure misclassification, selective participation and confounding. The update yielded 87 papers, pertaining to 108 new studies of which 40 new studies were on annoyance, 42 on sleep disturbance and 26 concerning cardiovascular and metabolic effects. The number, size and quality of the new studies suggest new meta-analyses could be undertaken over the sources and effects included in the WHO reviews.

How Can Low-Frequency Noise Exposure Interact with the Well-Being of a Population? Some Results from a Portuguese Municipality

Noise pollution is the second most harmful environmental stressor in Europe. Portugal is the fourth European country most affected by noise pollution, whereby 23.0% of the population is affected. This article aims to analyze the effects of exposure to low frequency noise pollution, emitted by power poles and power lines, on the population’s well-being, based on a study of “exposed” and “unexposed” individuals in two predominantly urban areas in north-western Portugal. To develop the research, we used sound level (n = 62) and sound recording measurements, as well as adapted audiometric test performance (n = 14) and surveys conducted with the resident population (n = 200). The sound levels were measured (frequency range between 10 to 160 Hz) and compared with a criterion curve developed by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The sound recorded was performed 5 m away from the source (400 kV power pole). Surveys were carried out with the “exposed” and “unexposed” populations, and adapted audiometric tests were performed to complement the analysis and to determine the threshold of audibility of “exposed” and “unexposed” volunteers. The “exposed” area has higher sound levels and, consequently, more problems with well-being and health than the “unexposed” population. The audiometric tests also revealed that the “exposed” population appears to be less sensitive to low frequencies than the “unexposed” population.

Geographically distributed longitudinal nitrogen dioxide and other air pollution sensor measurements in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children cohort catchment area

Longitudinal cohort studies provide unique opportunities to investigate the health impact of air pollution. We aimed to enhance the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) birth cohort study through the systematic collection of routinely monitored air pollution data collected by local authorities and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) using a range of sensor technologies. These sensor data are in themselves not well suited for population epidemiology, rather these data are primarily used for validating and calibrating modelled air pollution concentration data over study areas. In this data note we describe the sources of routine air pollution monitoring data and detail data of pollutants including nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, benzene and ozone collated from the local authorities that overlap the ALSPAC catchment area (Bristol, North Somerset, South Gloucestershire and part of Bath and North East Somerset).

Scalable Concentric Diversification Approach to Food Production for Sustainability in Rural Communities

Over the years, there have been many attempts by renowned bureaucrats, researchers and practitioners to define the term “agricultural diversification” and to enact farm policies that enforce that definition as tradition. These advocates claim thatdiversification, as it were, would provide greater income stability allowing specialized farms to benefit from economies of size.Foreign governments and international food aid organizations would not finance farming activities outside the scope of thisdefinition. However, many critics contend that these definitions are misleading and do not necessarily lead to food security andagro-business sustainability. They argue that if it were so, poverty levels in the world would have reduced by now. Be that as itmay, many foreign countries have a different understanding of the term “diversification”. For instance, The British Departmentfor Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) defines diversification as the entrepreneurial use of farm resources for a nonagricultural purpose for commercial gain. Many critics believe this to be a more appropriate and articulate definition of theconcept as it reduces risk, accommodates responses to changing consumer demands, acknowledges changing governmentpolicies, malleable to external shocks and, more recently, as a consequence of climate change. It is as a result of this backdrop ofwhat makes agricultural diversification a success or failure that the concept of scaleable concentric diversification approach tofood production for sustainability is introduced. The research explores ways in which this intrinsic nuance can be implemented inrural communities for food production, security and sustainability.

O "comer fora de casa" no Brasil, Reino Unido e na Espanha: uma revisão das bases de dados estatísticos oficiais e perspectivas para comparação

The objective of this article is to compare the official databases of three countries, Brazil, Spain and the United Kingdom, on the data related to food expenses, especially "eating out", comparing their methodologies, concepts and organization. In this sense, comparative studies that look to differences and similarities in different social, economic and cultural contexts contribute to the understanding of this phenomenon, and official statistical data sources are one of the possible forms to investigation, despite their limitations in terms of methodological confluence. The main sources of official data come from the responsible research institutes in each country. In Brazil, the main source of official data comes from "Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares" (POF), conducted by "Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística" (IBGE). In Spain, the main source of official data comes from “Encuestas de Presupuestos Familiares” (EPF base 2006), conducted by "Instituto Nacional de Estadística" (INE) and the "Encuesta del Consumo Extradoméstico" conduced by "Ministério de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente" (MAGRAMA). Finally, in the United Kingdom, the main sources of data are the Living Costs and Food Survey (LCF), conducted by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) and the Food Statistics Pocketbook drawn up by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The results indicate that there are many difficulties in analyzing the official databases with respect to the "eating out" phenomenon, either because of the limitations of the data themselves or because of the limitations in performing comparative analyses in a direct way.

Evaluating morphometric and metabolic markers of body condition in a small cetacean, the harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena).

Mammalian body condition is an important individual fitness metric as it affects both survival and reproductive success. The ability to accurately measure condition has key implications for predicting individual and population health, and therefore monitoring the population‐level effects of changing environments. No consensus currently exists on the best measure to quantitatively estimate body condition in many species, including cetaceans. Here, two measures of body condition were investigated in the harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). First, the most informative morphometric body condition index was identified. The mass/length2 ratio was the most appropriate morphometric index of 10 indices tested, explaining 50% of the variation in condition in stranded, male porpoises with different causes of death and across age classes (n = 291). Mass/length2 was then used to evaluate a second measure, blubber cortisol concentration, as a metabolic condition marker. Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid hormone involved in the regulation of lipolysis and overall energy balance in mammals, and concentrations could provide information on physiological state. Blubber cortisol concentrations did not significantly vary around the girth (n = 20), but there was significant vertical stratification through the blubber depth with highest concentrations in the innermost layer. Concentrations in the dorsal, outermost layer were representative of concentrations through the full blubber depth, showed variation by sex and age class, and were negatively correlated with mass/length2. Using this species as a model for live cetaceans from which standard morphometric measurements cannot be taken, but from which blubber biopsy samples are routinely collected, cortisol concentrations in the dorsal, outermost blubber layer could potentially be used as a biomarker of condition in free‐ranging animals.