Game Demands Research Articles

Face Image Generation for Anime Characters based on Generative Adversarial Network

With the increasing demand for digital art, animation, and games, facial generation for anime characters has attracted growing research interest in recent years, which aims to build models to automatically generate unique and high-quality character images. Thanks to the rapid advancement of deep learning techniques, particularly generative adversarial networks, GAN-based image generation methods have continuously achieved breakthroughs in generation effectiveness and speed. Focusing on generating realistic anime face images, this paper proposes an anime character face image generation model based on GANs, which integrates Bath Normalization and Dropout to maintain strong stability and avoid overfitting. Comprehensive experiments show the efficacy of the proposed method, which can achieve high diversity in facial features and styles while maintaining visual coherence

Acute Effects of the French Contrast Method and Post Activation Potentiation on 3 × 3 Basketball Game Demands and Thermal Asymmetry Responses

This study aimed to determine the acute effects of the French contrast method (FCM) and post-activation potentiation (PAP) protocols on 3 × 3 basketball game demands and thermal asymmetry in male basketball players and to compare these effects between protocols. Eighteen male basketball players (mean ± SD; age: 21.7 ± 1.5 years, 10.6 ± 1.9 years of experience) visited the laboratory four times, 72 h apart. The players participated in three different protocols (baseline: 3 × 3 game; FCM + 3 × 3 game; PAP + 3 × 3 game; respectively). The players’ internal and external loads were monitored, game profiles were analyzed, and thermography was applied during the protocols. The results revealed that FCM and PAP did not significantly differ in internal load; however, the significant highest total distance and distance in band 2 during the 3 × 3 basketball game was after the FCM. The 1-point attempt was significantly higher after the FCM, and turnover was significantly higher after PAP. Significant thermal asymmetry was observed in the abdominals and lower back after the FCM and PAP. The results of this study provide coaches and practitioners with detailed information regarding the game demands that can be used to improve the playing profile of 3 × 3 basketball players.

Relationship of Individual Athlete External Load, Session Rating of Perceived Exertion, and Athlete Playing Status Across a Collegiate Women's Basketball Season.

External (EL) and internal (IL) load are commonly used methods used to quantify training load in team sports. Playing time and playing position may influence the training loads for specific athletes throughout a season. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effect of athlete playing status and individual in-season practices on EL and IL across a collegiate women's basketball season. Female basketball athletes were classified as high-minute (HMA; ≥15 min/game) or low-minute (LMA; <15 min/game) and wore microsensors during 53 practices for a total of 583 data points. EL was obtained via an inertial measurement unit (IMU) device that contained a triaxial accelerometer to obtain three-dimensional positioning data. IL and strength training (ST) load were determined via session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) to create a daily summated value. Descriptive statistics indicate that athletes experienced individual differences in EL, ST, and IL throughout the season. A growth model showed that HMAs experienced higher EL than LMAs at the start of the season for practices (90.21 AU). Across all athletes, IL increased across the season (40.11 AU) and for each 1 unit of change in EL, IL increased by 1.04 AU. Repeated measures correlations identified a large relationship between IL and EL (r = 0.51, p < 0.001). A location-scale model indicated that the within-person variability of IL across all athletes was 3.29 AU but was not due to athlete playing status. It is recommended to base in-season training on individual loads and game demands to promote athlete readiness and improved sport performance.

Average and peak external demands according to opposition quality and opposition pace across a full season in semi-professional, male basketball players

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to quantify and compare the average external intensity and peak external demands experienced by basketball players between games facing opposition teams of different qualities and playing paces. External load variables were monitored in 11 semi-professional, male basketball players across 26 official games during a full in-season. Inertial movement units were used to measure average Player Load™ per minute (PL·min−1) across entire games and peak PL across any 30-s, 1-min, and 3-min epoch during games. Linear mixed models and Cohen’s d effect sizes were used to compare variables between games facing opposition teams clustered as low, medium or high quality (based on final season ranking) and playing pace (based on average number of possessions per game throughout the season). Significantly lower average PL·min−1 were apparent when playing high (p = 0.02) and medium-quality opponents (p < 0.05) compared to low-quality opponents, with non-significant (p > 0.05), trivial differences in peak PL between opponents of different qualities. Likewise, non-significant (p > 0.05) trivial – small differences were observed in average PL·min−1 and peak PL between opponents with different average playing paces. Playing higher-ranking opponents may reduce the average physical demands; however, opponent pace appears to exert minimal impact on average and peak external game demands.

Sports betting cannibalization: Evidence from Pennsylvania

The repeal of the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act (PASPA) in 2018 resulted in the rapid introduction of sports betting into many U.S. markets. This study investigates the introduction of sports betting in Pennsylvania. We explore the staggered implementation of sports betting across casinos in Pennsylvania to analyze the impact of sports betting on slot gaming and table gaming. Our results show evidence that there is no short-term effect of sports betting on the revenues generated from slot gaming and tabling gaming demand, however, our results show some evidence of complementarity on the longer-term between sports betting and other gaming options.

Cardiovascular Response and Locomotor Demands of Elite Basketball Referees During International Tournament: A Within- and Between-Referee Analysis.

There is little knowledge about within- and between-referee variation (WBRV) in cardiovascular responses (CVR) and locomotor game demands (LMD). Thus, the primary aim of this study was to assess the WBRV of CVR and LMD in male basketball referees during elite international games in preparation [e.g., warm-up (WU) and re-warm-up (R-WU)] and active game phases. The secondary aim was to explore quarter-by-quarter differences in CVR and LMD. Thirty-five international male referees took part in this study (age, 40.4 ± 5.4 years; body height, 184.9 ± 5.7 cm; body weight, 85.1 ± 7.5 kg; BMI, 24.0 ± 1.7 kg × m-2; fat%, 18.8 ± 4.7% and VO2max, 50.4 ± 2.2 L × kg-1 × min-1. In total, 76 games (e.g., 228 officiating cases) were analyzed during the FIBA elite men's competition. They officiated 4.5 games on average (range 3-9 games). Each referee used the Polar Team Pro system to measure CVR [e.g., heart rate (HR), time spent in different HR intensity categories] and LMD (e.g., distance covered, maximal and average velocity, and number of accelerations). Results showed that the referees had bigger WBRV during the active and preparation (e.g., W-U than R-WU) phase when variables of higher CVR and LMD intensity were observed (e.g., time spent at higher HR zones, distance covered in higher speed zones). The WBRV, CVR, and LMD were higher during WU than R-WU. Moreover, the referees had a lower CVR and LMD in the second half. In conclusion, the referees should establish and follow consistently a game-to-game preparation routine and attempt to spread their on-court preparation time equally within the crew. A half-time preparation routine should be improved to re-establish a sufficient activation level similar to that achieved in pre-game preparation.

Ratio of accelerations to decelerations in Women’s division I lacrosse

This study analyzed the differences by position in acceleration, deceleration, and the ratio of accelerations to decelerations in drills and quarters of games (Q1-Q4). Data were collected in 23 female collegiate lacrosse athletes (20.8 ± 1.5 years, 168.3 ± 6.1 cm), consisting of ten midfielders, five defenders, and eight attackers. Drills were categorized as: stickwork (SW), small-sided games (SSG), warm-up (WU), active recovery (AR), individual skills (IS), scrimmage, and conditioning. AR (0.31 ± 0.09 accelerations/min) and WU (0.47 ± 0.07 accelerations/min) showed the lowest number of accelerations, and conditioning and SW were the highest (&gt;1.0 accelerations/min). Conditioning showed the highest demand for decelerations (0.37 ± 0.14 decelerations/min) and AR and WU had the fewest (0.10 ± 0.04 decelerations/min). AR, IS, SW, and WU all had higher acceleration/deceleration ratios (4:1 to 5.7:1) than the remaining drill types (p = .000 - .050, 3:1-4:1). Q1 had a higher acceleration demand (0.72 ± 0.52 accelerations/minute) than the remaining three quarters (0.57 - 0.67 accelerations/min). The game demand in decelerations was approximately 0.20 decelerations/minute across all quarters and the acceleration/deceleration ratio was approximately 4:1, with the exception of defenders in Q1 who had 6:1 ratio. There is a large demand for accelerations in field lacrosse with no positional differences, and training should be devoted towards this skill.

Dynamic difficulty adjustment using deep reinforcement learning: A review

With the evolution of the gaming industry, there is an increasing demand for games that offer immersive experiences beyond basic gratification. Traditional games with fixed difficulty levels often fail to cater to the diverse preferences and skills of players. To address these needs, dynamic difficulty adjustment (DDA) has emerged as a crucial element in game design. This review explores the application of Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) in achieving DDA, contrasting it with traditional methods. By examining various DRL algorithms and their effectiveness, as well as evaluating traditional models, this review identifies the potential of DRL in enhancing player experiences and outlines existing challenges. It also highlights future research directions, including the integration of DRL with Flow Theory and innovative evaluation methods. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of how DRL can advance game design and improve player satisfaction.

Physical performance and game demands in beach volleyball

The physical-conditional aspects of the game are a significant research area, focusing on game demands, strength, and kinematic features. This study aimed to synthesise the current state of the art regarding beach volleyball's physical demands. This systematic literature review was conducted in March 2024, following the PRISMA criteria and methodological quality scales. The databases consulted were SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Scopus. Data concerning study design, sample size, gender, age-group category, player role, and performance level were considered. The risk of bias was assessed using the 12-item MINORS methodological index scale. A total of 19 studies were included, considering male (6), female (9) or both genders (4) as a sample. According to the athletes’ level of performance, 25% of the studies assessed players at the developmental or national level, 50% explored the international context, and the remaining 25% were with elite players. Data regarding game demands, mechanical outcomes related to jump and power, kinematic variables concerning distance covered and running speed, and kinetic measurements for acceleration and deceleration actions are displayed. The data provided by the current review allow a precise comparison, addressing specific performance profiles and future research challenges from the lack of knowledge about this topic.

Bridging the Gap Between Training and Competition in Elite Rink Hockey: A Pilot Study.

Monitoring training load and competition load is crucial for evaluating and improving athlete performance. This study proposes an applied approach to characterize and classify the training task specificity in relation to competition in a top-level rink hockey team, considering external and internal load from training tasks and competition. Training tasks and game demands have significant dose-response differences, and exercises can be classified successfully based on their physiological and biomechanical demands. Cross-sectional study. Level 5. Ten elite-level male rink hockey players participated in this study. Players were monitored on 6 different task categories during 8 training sessions and 2 official games. A linear mixed model with random intercepts was used to compare training tasks and competition load, accounting for individual repeated measures. A 2-step cluster analysis was performed to classify the training tasks and games based on physiological and biomechanical load, employing log-likelihood as the distance measure and Schwartz's Bayesian criterion. Average heartrate, maximum heartrate, and high-speed skating (18.1-30 km/h) were the best physiological load predictors, while the most effective biomechanical load predictors were impacts [8-10] g(n), decelerations [-10 to -3]m/s²(n), and accelerations [3-10]m/s²(n). Different physiological and biomechanical responses were verified between training tasks and match demands. A 4-quadrant efforts assessment for each task category revealed that training tasks used by the team in the analysis presented lower biomechanical and physiological load demands than competition. Training tasks failed to adequately replicate the specific demands of competition, especially regarding high mechanical stress, such as the absence of high-intensity impacts and decelerations. This method of classification of training tasks may allow coaches to understand further the specificity and contribution of each task to competition demands, consequently improving the capacity of load management and the preparedness and readiness of players for competition.

Influence of Substitutions and Roles on Kinematic Variables in Professional Soccer Players.

In soccer, roles and substitutions can make it unclear how different physical capacities decrease over time and impact performance. This investigation aimed to analyze kinematic parameters and their changes over game time, and provide information to effectively prescribe training programs. Data from four professional teams were analyzed, and all the teams competed in the Italian First Division (Serie A). Average metabolic power and high-intensity activities associated with critical moments in the match were considered in the comparisons. The video analysis system STATS SportVU collected the data during official matches. Players were assigned to a specific group according to their time played, categorized as follows: 0-15', 15-30', 30-45', 45-60', 60-75', 75-90', and > 90 min. Different roles, including forwards and wingers (FW), midfielders (MF), center-backs (CB), and side-backs (SB) were also considered. Significant differences (p<0.05) were found in different roles and within roles at different times played. The results highlighted how MF performance decreased over time, whereas CB was unaffected by time. SB spent more time at very high velocity than other roles, independently from the time played. These findings provide valuable information about the physical demands of official soccer matches and could be used to review training prescriptions.

Football Game and Tactical Training

Versatile players are an essential part of modern football, which no longer allows us to talk about attacking or defensive players but rather players with complex talents who can manage any circumstance the game demands. The results of the study demonstrate how important it is for teachers to be involved in helping students learn the best teaching techniques in order for them to become proficient soccer players. To advance game models in the areas of technical procedures and tactical behavior that enhance the activity of those involved in the field and provide them with a good opportunity to analyze a football game, this article need to compare the differences that manifest themselves in the organization of the teams.

Community-level implicit biases against LGBTQ+ people predict WNBA attendance

ABSTRACT Drawing from theories of intergroup bias (Dovidio et al. 2010), the purpose of this study was to examine the association between a community’s implicit bias against racially minoritized people and LGBTQ+ people, and attendance at Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) games. Ten years of data (2010–2019) were collected from publicly available sources (N = 120 team seasons). Dependent variables included average attendance and percent capacity. After accounting for factors previously shown to impact demand for WNBA games (arena capacity, city population, and winning percentage), a community’s implicit bias toward LGBTQ+ people was significantly and negatively associated with both demand outcomes. Collective implicit racial biases were not related to either attendance variable. The findings have practical implications for WNBA teams and the league, including sites for future teams. The study contributes to the growing literature showing that community biases can impact organizational outcomes.

Locomotor and Physiological Demands of Small-Sided Soccer Games in Wildcard and Regular Players: Effects of Goalkeepers and Type of Wildcard.

Small-sided games (SSGs) are frequent training drills in soccer. This study investigated whether type of game (ie, with/without goalkeepers) and wildcard ( without vs internal vs external wildcard) impact the physiological (heartrate [HR]) and locomotor (total distance [TD] covered) demands in regular and wildcard players and to evaluate between-player and within-player variability. Demands are influenced by wildcard and game type, with higher demand (distance covered at high intensities and sprint speed) in regular players and with higher variability in SSG with wildcard players. Descriptive/comparative study. Level 4. Twenty-four soccer players completed 6 SSG as 3 versus 3 without (NG) or with (GK) goalkeepers, and with internal (NG+IW and GK+IW) and external (NG+EW and GK+EW) wildcard. Average HR (HRavg), rate of perceived exertion, and locomotor demands (TD, medium [MID = 7.0-13.9 km h-1], high [HID = 14.0-20.9 km h-1] and sprint [SPD >21.0 km h-1] distance and peak speed [PS]) were registered. The inclusion of GK and internal wildcard led to decreased HRavg and TD in regular players. Wildcard players positioned internally exhibited higher TD, PS, and lower HRavg than externally positioned wildcards. Regular players demonstrated higher TD, PS, MID, HID, HRavg and time spent in Z3 (>90% HRmax) compared with wildcard players in SSG played with external wildcard. Regular and wildcard players displayed great between- and within-player variability in high-intensity metrics. Specific game type and wildcard inclusion impact the physiological and locomotor demands in SSG, with variations observed between regular and wildcard players. This study provides comprehensive information on the physiological and locomotor demands of SSG depending on the inclusion and position of goalkeepers and wildcards, which can be useful for strength and conditioning coaches when designing specific training tasks, individualizing training load and applying return-to-play programs.

Preventing Exertional Heat Stroke in Football: Time for a Paradigm Shift.

Among American sports, football has the highest incidence of exertional heat stroke (EHS), despite decades of prevention strategies. Based on recent reports, 100% of high school and college EHS football fatalities occur during conditioning sessions. Linemen are the at-risk population, constituting 97% of football EHS deaths. Linemen heat up faster and cool down slower than other players. Case series were identified from organized, supervised football at the youth, high school, and collegiate levels and compiled in the National Registry of Catastrophic Sports Injuries. Sources for event occurrence were media reports and newspaper clippings, autopsy reports, certificates of death, school-sponsored investigations, and published medical literature. Articles were identified through PubMed with search terms "football," "exertional heat stroke," and "prevention." Clinical review. Level 5. Football EHS is tied to (1) high-intensity drills and conditioning that is not specific to individual player positions, (2) physical exertion as punishment; (3) failure to modify physical activity for high heat and humidity, (4) failure to recognize early signs and symptoms of EHS, and (5) death when cooling is delayed. To prevent football EHS, (1) all training and conditioning should be position specific; (2) physical activity should be modified per the heat load; (3) understand that some players have a "do-or-die" mentality that supersedes their personal safety; (4) never use physical exertion as punishment; (5) eliminate conditioning tests, serial sprints, and any reckless drills that are inappropriate for linemen; and (6) consider air-conditioned venues for linemen during hot practices. To prevent EHS, train linemen based on game demands. n/a.

P‐39: Simulation of Perceived Motion Blur on 480Hz OLED Monitor

Refresh rate is an important specification for gaming OLED monitors. With the development of the gaming industry and the graphics processing unit (GPU), the demand for gaming monitors that supporting high refresh rates is increasing. In this paper, simulation methods for perceived motion blur are proposed to predict the degree of blur according to the refresh rate. Experimental results indicate that the proposed simulation methods are quite effective in predicting the degree of motion blur. In addition, this paper presents the predicted results of blur as the refresh rate increases up to 480Hz.

The impact of soccer-specific psychophysiological stress on inhibition and cognitive flexibility in elite youth players

While researchers and practitioners attribute an essential role to executive functions (EFs) for soccer performance, the usefulness of respective diagnostics and the predictive value remain unclear. One limitation restricting the translation and relevance of study results to improve actual game performance is the insufficient consideration of competitive conditions. Thus, this study aimed to conduct soccer-specific cognitive diagnostics under a soccer-specific psychophysiological stress condition, mimicing the demands of a competitive game. A total of 92 (Mage = 15.17, SDage = 1.45) youth elite players performed tests for inhibition (flanker task) or cognitive flexibility (number-letter task) with a soccer-specific motor response (i.e., pass into goals). After a pre-test in a neutral condition, players were randomly assigned to a neutral (moderate soccer-specific exercise) or a stress condition (physical stress and competitive instructions and filming for psychological stress). Objective (i.e., cortisol, heart rate variability) and subjective stress-related measures (i.e., SAM, VAS) were assessed six times throughout experimental procedure. Analyses revealed significant interaction effects between time and condition for all objective and subjective variables indicating a successful experimental stress induction. For cognitive performance, results revealed significant main effects of time, but no significant interaction effects between time and condition. However, descriptive statistics suggested improved performance under stress, with decreased flanker effect and switch costs. Additionally, response time variability in the flanker task significantly decreased in the stress condition. These findings offer insights into individual stress perception and processing under game-related psychophysiological demands, expanding previous research on situational EF alterations that also hold relevance for applied practitioners.

Critical speed models of high-resolution speed-duration profiles describe peak running demands in soccer

The purpose of this study was to characterize critical speed (CS) models for summarizing high-resolution speed-duration profiles from GPS tracking data obtained from soccer players. GPS data from 15 male NCAA Division I soccer players were collected during practices and games over a 6-week period. Moving averages of the speed data were computed for each file for duration windows spanning 0.1 to 600 seconds at 0.1-second resolution. Speed-duration profiles for each session and for the entire sampling period (“global”) were generated for each player by selecting the maximal mean speeds for each duration. Four models were fit to the profiles: the two-parameter CS (CS2) model, the three-parameter CS (CS3) model, the omni-domain speed-duration (OmSD) model, and the five-parameter logistic (5PL) model. The 5PL, CS3, and OmSD models exhibited similar goodness of fits, and all outperformed the CS2 model. Similar CS estimates were obtained for each model, whereas maximum speed ( Smax) estimates were lower for OmSD compared to the 5PL. Players exhibited a range of parameter values for CS, D′, and Smax. Smax and CS estimated from session-specific speed-duration profiles were on average higher for games compared to practices. We conclude that CS models are useful for empirically describing speed-duration profiles and for assessing peak running demands for soccer practices and games. The proposed approach could help coaches design practice activities to better mimic game demands.

Comparison of physical fitness and game demands between young female rugby sevens athletes in different sports development contexts

Aim: This study aimed to compare the physical and game demands among young women rugby sevens athletes inserted in a long-term athlete development process (LTAD) and selected to the national team. Methods: Twenty-four athletes were recruited in two different contexts: thirteen participants were inserted in the LTAD process (VSR) and eleven Brazilian athletes were selected for the youth national team (BRA). One-repetition-maximum tests, jumping performance, sprint times, and aerobic capacity determined the physical performance and GPS recorded the game demands in the national championship. T-tests for independent samples and Mann-Whitney were used to compare the groups, and effect size (ES) was presented using Cohen's d. Results: 10-m sprint time (p = 0.001; ES = 1.47), 30-m sprint time (p = 0.005; ES = 1.42), sprint distance (p = 0.030; ES = 1.14) and distance in zone 5 (p = 0.040; ES = 0.92) showed differences between groups, with better results in BRA. Moreover, VSR athletes covered greater distances in zone 1 while BRA had greater distances in zone 4, with moderate ES. The strength, power of lower limbs, and aerobic fitness variables did not present significant differences between the groups. However, VSR had the highest mean in squat jump and countermovement jump, with moderate ES. Conclusion: Speed in physical tests and game demands differentiated the groups, and these parameters are essential for selection for the national team. However, the LTAD process can bring physical

Cooler Bobbleheads Prevail: Bobblehead Character Type and Impact on Attendance at Major League Baseball Games

Abstract: Giveaways such as jerseys, caps, or bobbleheads are part of a host of promotions used to entice fans to purchase tickets and attend live events, particularly in sports. Bobbleheads have often been viewed as the bellwether giveaway in demand-side analytical studies as they are common across sport, league, and team and are viewed as highly prized collectable items. Empiricists typically code promotions as binary variables to measure the impact these additional perks have on attendance, yet each bobblehead event features a distinct figurine distinguished by several previously unexplored dimensions. Due to the nature of bobbleheads typically resembling real-life individuals, consumer sentiment toward the bobblehead’s namesake may drive or deter the demand for the giveaway. Using a novel dataset of descriptions of bobblehead giveaways, this study finds that demand for Major League Baseball games varies by a bobblehead’s character type, where the impact on attendance is greatest for bobbleheads featuring players and sportscasters, lowest for managers, and middling for mascots and other types. Evidence suggests that bobbleheads depicted in costumes or as characters of licensed brands lead to greater attendance than brandless bobbleheads, yet the gains observed from the average branded bobblehead game may not offset the additional costs associated with licensing agreements.