Female Delinquency Research Articles

Understanding the Female Offender

Although boys engage in more delinquent and criminal acts than do girls, female delinquency is on the rise. In 1980, boys were four times as likely as girls to be arrested; today they are only twice as likely to be arrested. In this article, Elizabeth Cauffman explores how the juvenile justice system is and should be responding to the adolescent female offender. Cauffman begins by reviewing historical trends in arrest rates, processing, and juvenile justice system experiences of female offenders. She also describes the adult outcomes commonly observed for female offenders and points out that the long-term consequences of offending for females are often more pronounced than those for males, with effects that extend to the next generation. She also considers common patterns of offending in girls, as well as factors that may increase or decrease the likelihood of offending. She then reviews what is known about effective treatment strategies for female offenders. Female delinquents have a high frequency of mental health problems, suggesting that effective prevention efforts should target the mental health needs of at-risk females before they lead to chronic behavior problems. Once girls with mental health problems come into the juvenile justice system, says Cauffman, diverting them to community-based treatment programs would not only improve their individual outcomes, but allow the juvenile justice system to focus on cases that present the greatest risk to public safety. Evidence is emerging that gender-specific treatment methods can be effective for female offenders, especially when treatment targets multiple aspects of offenders' lives, including family and peer environments. But it is also becoming clear that female offenders are not a homogeneous group and that treatment ultimately should be tailored to suit individual needs defined more specifically than by gender alone. Despite myriad differences between male and female offending, many of the primary causes of offending, says Cauffman, are nevertheless similar. The most effective policies for reducing juvenile crime, she argues, will be those that foster development in a safe and nurturing environment throughout childhood. Cauffman concludes that female offenders are likely to require continued support long after their direct involvement with the juvenile justice system.

Working With Female Juvenile Delinquents: What Youth Practitioners Need to Know

This article is organized in a way to help youth practitioners recognize the most pertinent issues faced by female juveniles and to provide help in guiding professional interactions, communication and decision-making. The guidelines discussed are suggestions for practice based on an empirical review of the literature. Recent research has identified ten characteristics of female juvenile offenders to consider when working with this population. These areas include: (a) impaired cognitive functioning, (b) low academic achievement, (c) weak language skills, (d) peer relationships, (e) onset of menarche, (f) early sexual experiences, (g) mental illness, (h) victimization (i) low self-esteem and (j) race.

Zola Award Winner: "I Ain't Had Much Schooling": The Ritual of the Examination and the Social Construction of Impairment

In this article, Rembis uses case files and other records from the state training school for girls in Geneva, Illinois, as well as published studies of female juvenile delinquents, to analyze the psychological evaluation of inmates from the perspective of both female experts and their female subjects. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, experts conducting research at Geneva consistently argued that an overwhelmingly high percentage of its inmates were "feebleminded" or "mentally defective." Analyzing the testing that occurred at Geneva reveals not only the importance of eugenics and other psy discourses in the construction of mental "defect," but also the contestation, negotiation, and redefinition that undergirded the formation of historically contingent definitions of impairment. Many disability theorists and activists have viewed impairment as a prediscursive state of being, as politically neutral, given, natural, and timeless. As this article shows impairment is not ahistorical. It too has a history, a genealogy. The ritual of modern psychological examination was a critical new modality of power that greatly affected the lives of its subjects; the examiner observed, measured, recorded, defined, and treated, all through a process in which power relations between scientist and subject were far from equal, but the ritual of the exam did afford its subjects some room for negotiation and redefinition. Young women incarcerated at Geneva actively participated in the examination and in the formation of their own individuality, and in some cases affected not only their own lived experience, but also dominant perceptions of "mental defect" and eugenic commitment.

Measuring Executive Functions in Female Delinquents Using the Cognitive Assessment System

ABSTRACT Executive functions in 100 incarcerated adolescent female offenders were examined using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). As hypothesized, mean scores for the sample were significantly lower than norms on measures of Planning and Successive Processing. Contrary to our hypothesis, the Attention mean did not differ significantly from the normative data. The Simultaneous mean was also significantly lower than norms although no hypothesis had been made and only a small effect size was noted. These findings suggest that incarcerated delinquent females can be differentiated from non-delinquent females on the basis of specific neuropsychological deficits in much the same way that male delinquents can be differentiated from non-delinquent males.

Social Control, Serious Delinquency, and Risky Behavior

Social control theory asserts that strong social bonds inhibit delinquency, whereas weak bonds offer little resistance to offending. In the development of this theoretical perspective, new research suggests that the type and magnitude of social bonds have differing effects on male and female delinquency. This study adds to our understanding of how social control factors of parental attachment, involvement in diverse prosocial activities, belief in traditional norms, and school climate affect both young men's and young women's reports of serious delinquency and risky behavior in a sample of high school youth. Whereas previous research has generally either controlled for the effect of gender statistically or studied all-male samples, this article uses separate models to examine the independent effects of social bonds on male and female delinquency. The findings support the development of gender-specific analyses to understand how social control affects male and female pathways into delinquency.

Women and Girls Crime: Selected Criminological Theories

The aim of the article is to acquaint the reader with the problem of female delinquency by looking at the criminological theories crucial to the phenomenon. The text by Dagmara Woźniakowska-Fajst draws attention to the limitations of research approaches used in studies on female crime. The author argues that the theories used in criminology to study female offenders ignore gender differences and are based on the same factors that define male criminality. As women’s crime is considered a marginal occurrence, researchers try to explore it by looking for either unusual abnormalities or reasons why women are less likely than men to commit criminal acts. The material presented in the article comprises criminological theories that have been or are being used to study female criminality. The author lists those theories that identify the causes of female delinquency as the parenting style for girls, such as the theorythat criminal behaviour is learned(Sutherland), according to which women – whose primary group was to be a strongly controlling family – were less likely to learn criminal behaviour than boys. Differential association theories claim that women’s criminal behaviour is strongly related to their aberrant lifestyles. These women observe criminal and antisocial behaviour in their mothers, fathers, cousins, and siblings over many years and internalise this way of being as appropriate. Next, the author cites biochemical theories that attempt to explain women’s criminal behaviour as a result of hormonal and biological changes caused, for example, by premenstrual syndrome (PMS) or pregnancy. Then, the text presents theories related to the position of women in society, such as Merton’s strain theory of deviance, Cohen’s theory of cultural syndromes, or Cloward and Ohlin’s theory of differential opportunity systems. In this case, the means do not have to be specific tools. It is sufficient that the set of values or attitudes that facilitate the unlawful behaviour are accepted among women. This theory is easier to ‘fit’ into criminal acts committed by women. Further on, Woźniakowska-Fajst mentions Tannenbaum’s social labelling theory, according to which deviants (in this case women) are labelled criminals based on the stereotypical perception of them. The articlealso presents the main tenets of control theories, including the social bond theory by Hirschi and Hinderlang and the power-control theory by Hagan, which, although used primarily to study male delinquency, sought to explain the lower rates of delinquency among girls by drawing attention to the impact of parents’ careers and social class on the prevalence of criminal acts among minors. Finally, the article discusses integrated theories, which are investigations that try to obtain a single model from a combination of known criminological theories. The author believes that these theories are the future of criminological research on women’s crime and stresses the positive influence of the contemporary trend in modern criminology, which is marked by a broader view of the causes of criminal behaviour.

Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology in Female and Male Juvenile Delinquents

A developmental perspective implies similar personality pathology dimensions for adolescents and adults. The present study examined the applicability of a dimensional approach in incarcerated delinquent female and male juveniles using the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ). A sample of detained adolescents (n = 146) was compared to adolescent students (n = 98) and a healthy control group of adults (n = 82). Additionally, psychopathology was assessed in the incarcerated juveniles using the Youth Self Report (YSR). Analyses of variance revealed higher scores on personality disorder traits for juveniles compared to adult controls; the highest scores were observed in criminal juveniles. Hypothesized relationships could be confirmed within the criminal sample between the DAPP factor Emotional Dysregulation and the YSR Internalization syndrome scale, and between the DAPP factor Dissocial Behavior and the YSR Externalization syndrome scale. Moreover, gender differences in the criminal sample are discussed. Results indicate that the DAPP-BQ can assess personality disorder traits in delinquent and nondetained juveniles with sufficient group and criterion validity.

Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in delinquent female adolescents

Although juveniles within the justice system have high psychiatric morbidity, few comprehensive investigations have shown posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in female delinquents. Here, we aim to describe the nature and extent of PTSD and trauma exposure and to clarify the relationships among comorbidity and psychosocial factors in juvenile female offenders. Sixty-four girls were randomly interviewed using structured tools. Self-report measures were used to assess depression, eating behaviour, impulsivity and parental attitude. The PTSD prevalence was 33%, and 77% of the female juvenile offenders had been exposed to trauma. The offenders with PTSD showed a significantly high psychiatric comorbidity. Depression and adverse parenting were associated with PTSD development, and abnormal eating was also correlated with PTSD symptoms. Marked differences in the frequency and intensity of PTSD evaluation depending on the type of comorbidity and trauma were observed. Incarcerated young females in Japan have serious trauma-related problems, and the degree of depression is a strong predictor of PTSD development and symptoms. This study highlights the importance of adequate diagnosis and treatment of PTSD in delinquent female adolescents.

Predicting Adolescent and Adult Antisocial Behavior Among Adjudicated Delinquent Females

Studies identifying the mechanisms underlying the causes and consequences of antisocial behavior among female delinquents as they transit to adulthood are scarce and have important limitations: Most are based on official statistics, they typically are restricted to normative samples, and rarely do they gather prospective data from samples of high-risk females. By contrast, this research is based on a longitudinal sample of females who were interviewed initially in 1982 ( n = 127) when they were institutionalized adolescent offenders, and subsequently as young adults in 1995 ( n = 109). Our analyses, focusing on the impact of a variety of family factors derived from social control and strain theory, show that physical and sexual abuse during childhood and adolescence are potent predictors of adult criminality, though not of adolescent delinquency. The implications of the long-term negative impact of childhood and adolescent abuse are discussed, and concrete policy recommendations offered.

A Test of Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory

In this study, Hirschi's social bonding theory is employed to identify what aspects of the theory can explain male and female delinquency and whether social bonding variables can equally explain male and female delinquency (generalizability problem) in a developing society, Turkey. The data include a two-stage-stratified cluster sample of 1,710 high school students from the central districts of Ankara, the capital of Turkey. The findings suggest that social bonding variables play a more important role for male students than for female students. Furthermore, they indicate that components of the social bonding theory can equally explain both male and female delinquent acts.

Gender Differences in the Predictors of Juvenile Delinquency

At the heart of the gender-specificity debate is the argument that gender-neutral theories cannot adequately explain female delinquency. Instead, it has been asserted that theories should incorporate risk factors that capture females' unique experiences. In this context, the current study uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health to address the generality-specificity debate. The analysis includes variables not only from traditional criminological theories and the newer life-course approach but also from the feminist perspective. Results from multivariate analyses show that although there are some similarities in the predictors of male and female delinquency, differences also emerged. Variables measuring general strain and involvement are stronger predictors for males, whereas only attachment to school is stronger for females. One feminist theory variable and one life-course variable exhibit stronger effects in the models for females. The implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are also addressed.

Race, Abuse, and Female Criminal Violence

Gender-specific research on the relationship between childhood abuse and delinquency in females is an important emerging topic in criminology. Feminist criminologists have pointed toward childhood abuse as a key turning point in young girls' lives that leads toward delinquency but have yet to empirically address how this relationship varies along racial lines. This study uses prospective cohort data to test for interactions among child abuse, race, and violent criminal arrest in females. In doing so, it addresses the differences in the effects of abuse across gender and across race in females. Results provide some support for feminist literature finding that although all abused children were more likely to be later arrested for a violent offense, the effects were significantly stronger for abused girls than boys. Still, race and gender interactions reveal no racial differences in the effects of abuse on females.

The Next Generation of Prisoners

Violent behavior by juveniles, along with the juvenile incarceration rate, has been on the decline in the past several years. Despite these declines, institutionalized juveniles, particularly violent offenders, constitute the population most at risk of becoming the next generation of adult prisoners. Using a sample of youth incarcerated in the Texas Youth Commission (TYC), this article first examines gender differences among numerous self-report measures including but not limited to violence, maltreatment, life stress, and depression. Next, multivariate analysis revealed that age, minority status, substance dependency, life stress, and gang membership were significantly related to violent offending. Analyses also revealed that numerous variables were related to depression among incarcerated male and female delinquents. This article ends with a discussion of policy implications for incarcerated delinquents.

Different Pathways to Juvenile Delinquency: Characteristics of Early and Late Starters in a Sample of Previously Incarcerated Youth

We examined the differences between early and late start juvenile delinquents in a sample of 531 previously incarcerated youth in Oregon's juvenile justice system. Data were analyzed with logistic regression to predict early start delinquency based on four explanatory variables: foster care experience, family criminality, special education disability, and socioeconomic status. Youth with foster care experience were four times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no foster care experience. Youth with a family member convicted of a felony were two times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no family felony. Implications for future research are discussed, as well as implications for practice and policy. We suggest that future studies examine differences between male and female delinquents, the effects of foster care on children, and interfamilial processes that facilitate criminal behavior. Efforts to support children and families at risk of abuse and neglect should be reexamined in light of the results of our study, which adds to the emerging knowledge base regarding the relationships between violence experienced in early childhood, and future criminal behavior.

Does Feminism Spoil Girls? Explanations for Official Rises in Female Delinquency

Official rates of female delinquency have been rising steadily in countries such as Australia, England, Canada and the United States since the 1960s.They have also generally been rising at a rate faster than that for boys. As yet there is little consensus about the reasons for these rises or even whether such rate rises reflect any real increase in female delinquency at all. Against this backdrop of rising official crimes rates for young women, this article revisits the various criminological explanations for these trends.

Violence, Privilege and Power

Perceptions of female delinquents are formed in part by exposure to media images of these females. The news media has depicted different constructions of troubled girls ranging from promiscuous to mean (Chesney-Lind & Irwin, 2004). The entertainment media provides images of troubled girls, yet this topic has rarely been addressed. This study examines films featuring female delinquents in order to understand how these girls are portrayed and to identify messages sent to viewers. It questions whether these images are similar to those found in the news media and how these images may shape perceptions of female delinquents in our society.

Secret gardens, satanic mills: placing girls in European history, 1750-1960

Introduction Part I. Working Girls' Labor and Lives in the Pre-industrial and Early Industrial Eras 1. Deborah Simonton: Bringing up Girls: Work in Pre-Industrial Europe 2. Mary Jo Maynes: In Search of Arachne's Daughters: European Girls, Economic Development, and the Textile Trade, 1750-1880 3. Andreas Gestrich: After Dark: Girls' Leisure, Work and Sexuality in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-century Rural Southwest Germany 4. Clare Crowston: An Industrious Revolution in Late Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Paris: New Vocational Training for Adolescent Girls and the Creation of Female Labor Markets 5. Carol E. Morgan: Work for Girls? The Small Metal Industries in England, 1840-1915. II. Spaces of Socialization of Middle- and Upper-class Girls in the 18th and 19th Centuries 6. Irene Hardach-Pinke: Managing Girls' Sexuality Among the German Upper Classes 7. Rebecca Rogers: Porous Walls and Prying Eyes: Control, Discipline, and Morality in Boarding Schools for Girls in mid-19th century France. 8. Celine Grasser: Good Girls vs. Blooming Maidens: The Building of Female Middle-Class Identities in the Garden, England and France, 1820-1870. III. Redefining Girlhood: Competing Discourses on Female Adolescence, 1880 - 1950 9. Kathleen Alaimo: The Authority of Experts: The Crisis of Female Adolescence in France and England, 1880-1920. 10. Mary Lynn Stewart: Sex Education and Sexual Initiation of Bourgeois French Girls, 1880-1930. 11. Christina Benninghaus: In Their Own Words: Girls' Representations of Growing Up in Germany in the 1920s. 12. Pamela Cox: Girls in Trouble. Defining Female Delinquency, Britain 1900-1950. IV. Changing Patterns of Work and Leisure, 1880-1960 13. Anna Davin: Young Women and Clerical Work in England, 1880-1910. 14. Elizabeth Jones: Girls in Court: Magde versus their Employers in Saxony, 1880-1914. 15. Tammy Proctor: 'Something for the girls': Organized Leisure in Europe, 1890-1930. 16. Birgitte Soland: Employment and Enjoyment: Female Coming of Age Experiences in Denmark, 1880-1930. 17. Claire Langhamer: Leisure, Pleasure and Courtship: Young Women in England, 1920-1960. 18. Karin M. Schmidlechner: The Emergence of the Modern Teenage Girl in Austria after World War II.

Hanging on by a Thread

Although females remain a small proportion of the juvenile justice population, arrest, detention and custody data have shown an increase in both the number and percentage of females in the juvenile justice system, a trend that runs counter to that of males. The vast majority of females in the juvenile justice system presents with family, mental health, and substance abuse issues and should be diverted from juvenile court processing. The re-criminalization of status offenses has had a particularly devastating impact on females in the juvenile justice system, which is ill prepared to deal with this population. This highlights the continued discriminatory and appalling treatment of youth, specifically females in this country. It is recommended that initiatives to address female delinquency be based on the developmental, psychological, social, educational, and cultural characteristics of this population with gender appropriate program interventions addressing a continuum of care and providing comprehensive services.

La prédiction de la délinquance

The paper presents the results of a meta-analysis to analyze which predictors of delinquency in males and females are consistently evident from longitudinal studies, and how the predictors compare in their predictive efficiency. The results show that a variety of conduct problems but also conditions within the family are predictive of later delinquency in general, recidivism, or serious offenses. As a rule, composite indicators of risk factors outperformed single indicators. Data is presented on the early identification of chronic offenders. The results are critically examined in terms of error rates, and in terms of future directions for research.

“Disease and Delinquency Know No Color”: Syphilis and African American Female Delinquency

This article explores the nuances of female delinquency, as it was labeled, during the early 1900s from a medical and social perspective, particularly its manifestation among African American girls. It also examines the efforts made by African American women in early 20th-century North Carolina to address what was deemed female delinquency, as well as syphilis, among these young girls.