Degrees Of Proficiency Research Articles

Code Choices Among Multilingual Families: a Pilot Study

Living in a multi-ethnic and multilingual country, Indonesian citizens have the privilege of being exposed to different languages and using them in various degrees of proficiency. As it becomes typical for an individual to mix and/or switch languages in everyday interaction, there is certainly room for more in-depth investigation, especially in determining the pattern of code choices among multilingual families. Using a descriptive qualitative approach, we observed how code choices occur in the family of two multilingual young adult speakers in Universitas Negeri Malang. The data of this current study were collected from two interview videos as a part of a larger project (Family Language Policy) we carried out in 2021 with a focus on how language selection processes work in their families. The results showed that there were different code choice patterns practiced in these two families; for example, the first family used Javanese as a primary communication code among family members, while the second family chose to use Indonesian. However, interestingly both families communicate in Indonesian when speaking to very young members or children. The findings of this current paper are important particularly in predicting the language shift phenomena in Indonesian contexts.
 Keywords: code choices, family language policy, multilingual families, Indonesia

The LexTALE as a measure of L2 global proficiency

The role of proficiency is widely discussed in multilingual language acquisition research, and yet, there is little consensus as to how one should operationalize it in our empirical investigations. The present study assesses the validity of the LexTALE (Lemhöfer & Broersma, 2012) as a ‘quick and valid’ measure of global proficiency. We first provide an overview review of how the LexTALE has been used since its publication, showing that although the test has gained popularity in the last few years, its reliability has not been thoroughly examined. Thus, herein we present results of a partial replication of Lemhöfer and Broersma (2012), where we empirically assess the validity of the LexTALE as a measure of L2 global proficiency in two groups of learners of English with various degrees of proficiency (L1 Spanish, n = 288; L1 Chinese, n = 266). Results indicate that if we are to use LexTALE in our investigations, we should do so with caution as the analyses show that irrespective of the L1 and level of proficiency of the targeted participants, its reliability as a measure of global proficiency is under question evidenced by the low and moderate correlations found with a standardised measure of global proficiency.

Test Difficulty in Second Language Setting: Measuring With Receiver Operating Characteristic

In order to assess the accuracy and validity of proficiency diagnostic tests in Second Language (L2), specifically regarding the linguistic (orthographic, semantic, syntactic, lexical) and cognitive (verbal reasoning, lexical decision) components for the immigrant population in Portugal, a study of cut-off points of 6 tests was conducted. This study was motivated by the unknown tests and the gap concerning the testing and rating of individuals in L2 settings, different from English as L2. The objective was to validate and inform about new tests (and how to establish rating scores and understand the proficiency level of students) in Second Language Testing (for European Portuguese) especially concerning different psychometrics for specific skills (e.g., phonemic blending). In this way, we contribute to identify new procedures for schools and professionals about testing of cognitive functions in immigrant populations. First, we examined 108 non-native students attending Portuguese schools, aged 7–17 years, speakers of mother tongues other than Portuguese and residing in Portugal for a period not exceeding eight years. Then, series of univariate analyses, non-parametric tests and the calculation of percentiles enabled the subsequent classification of the subjects’ proficiency levels: With or without proficiency. Several levels were identified. The sensitivity and specificity indexes were calculated using the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis to define the cut-off points for each test. The score calculation took into account the chronological age, age of immigration and gender variables. The evidence from this study suggests that all tasks are suitable to assess immigrant students. However with the ROC analysis, this assessment differs regarding degrees of proficiency between groups given the characteristics of the tasks and of the subjects. The importance of doing tests with discriminatory power of the subjects’ performance to be able to intervene in the linguistic and cognitive areas with the greatest deficit is examined here.

The Catch-A-Wave Theory of Adaptability: Core Competencies for Developing Gifted Behaviors in the Second Machine Age of Technology

In this article, I describe a series of Five Core Competencies that gifted education specialists should consider integrating into their teaching to respond to the many changes that are taking place in technology, work, and career preparation. Although the focus of this theory is on high- level jobs usually pursued by college graduates and advanced degree students, this work also has relevance for the general-education community because future employment at all levels will require various degrees of proficiency in the Core Competencies discussed below. Students who will pursue college degrees and professional level jobs will need to attain advanced levels of these skills, have the opportunity to explore a wide range of skills, and be able to learn them more rapidly. Students should be placed in learning situations that require the adaptability that is the theme of this article so that they will learn to apply the skills in ways that will lead to success in job-transformational situations. Leadership and advanced-level positions require high levels of both performance and flexibility in the competencies that will be discussed below. The Catch-A-Wave Theory of Adaptability will be introduced with the presentation of background information and a rationale for the theory. The theory itself along with the five Core Competencies included in the theory will follow and then be supplemented with a section that provides strategies and resources for developing those competencies.

Can You Make Better Decisions If You Are Bilingual?

Studies have shown that “framing bias,” a phenomenon in which two different presentations of the same decision-making problem provoke different answers, is reduced in a foreign language (the Foreign Language effect, FLe). Three explanations have emerged to account for the difference. First, the cognitive enhancement hypothesis states that lower proficiency in the FL leads to more deliberate processing, reducing the framing bias. Second, contradicting the previous, the cognitive overload hypothesis, states that the cognitive load actually induces speakers to make less rational decisions in the FL. Finally, the reduced emotionality hypothesis suggests that speakers have less of an emotional connection to a foreign language (FL), causing an increase in rational language processing. Previous FLe research has involved both FL and non-FL speakers such as highly proficient acculturated bilinguals. Our study extends this research program to a population of heritage speakers of Spanish (HS speakers), whose second language (English) is dominant and who have comparable emotional resonances in both of their languages. We compare emotion-neutral and emotion-laden tasks: if reduced emotionality causes the FLe, it should only be present in emotion-laden tasks, but if it is caused by cognitive load, it should be present across tasks. Ninety-eight HS speakers, with varying degrees of proficiency in Spanish, exhibited cognitive biases across a battery of tasks: framing bias appeared in both cognitive-emotional and purely cognitive tasks, consistent with previous studies. Language of presentation (and proficiency) did not have a significant effect on responses in cognitive-emotional tasks, but did have an effect on the purely-cognitive Disjunction fallacy task: HS speakers did better in their second, more proficient language, a result consistent with neither the reduced emotionality hypothesis nor the cognitive enhancement hypothesis. Moreover, higher proficiency in Spanish significantly improved the rate of correct responses, indicating that our results are more consistent with the cognitive overload hypothesis.

Polish-English Code-Switching in the Language of Polish Facebook Users

Social networking services, such as Facebook, are important channels of communication both for monolingual users and for those having various degrees of proficiency in L2, with the latter deploying expression both from L1 and L2. It can, therefore, be presumed that communication on FB plays a role in practicing the use of L2. One of the phenomena that can be examined in relation to that are various forms of code-switching. There is animmense research gap related to Polish-English code-switching appearing on this SNS. To obtain a full picture of the issue, the paper identifies and discusses types, strategies, and functions of Polish-English code-switches found in posts and comments published by Poles on Facebook in 2014–2019. It also indicates possible applications of FB tools and materials including CS in foreign language teaching and learning and shows how Facebook enables “social learning” (Mallia, 2013). The research is based on a corpus constructed by the author of this article. An integrated approach with both qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis is used in the paper. Three main CS types (intrasentential, intersentential, and tag-switching) and strategies (alternation, insertion, and congruent lexicalisation) have been attested in the material. The code-switches mostly indicate in-group membership but also, for example, introduce humor, quotes, and signal a lack of L1 equivalents. The study points out that there are certain relations between the types, strategies and functions. The resultsof the research are collated with the recent studies on Polish-English and Indonesian-English CS on Facebook.

Exploring the interplay of language and body in South African youth: A portrait-corpus study

AbstractElicitation materials like language portraits are useful to investigate people’s perceptions about the languages that they know. This study uses portraits to analyse the underlying conceptualisations people exhibit when reflecting on their language repertoires. Conceptualisations as manifestations of cultural cognition are the purview of cognitive sociolinguistics. The present study advances portrait methodology as it analyses data from structured language portraits of 105 South African youth as a linguistic corpus from both qualitative and quantitative perspectives. The approach enables the uncovering of (a) prominent underlying conceptualisations of African language(s) and the body, and (b) the differences and similarities of these conceptualisations vis-à-vis previous cognitive (socio)linguistic studies of embodied language experiences. In our analysis, African home languages emerged both as ‘languages of the heart’ linked to cultural identity and as ‘languages of the head’ linked to cognitive strength and control. Moreover, the notion of ‘degrees of proficiency’ or ‘magnitude’ of language knowledge emerged more prominently than in previous studies of embodied language experience.

Towards a Definition of Distinction in Professionalism

Phenomenon: Professionalism can be characterized by a particular set of attributes that clinicians demonstrate in practice. Although much has been described on those attributes that define acceptable professionalism, the characteristics that define distinction in professionalism have not yet been well defined. Approach: In this exploratory project, qualitative methods were used to triangulate three sources of data collected from three campuses of one medical school: student assessment summaries, teacher interviews, and an institutional policy. Findings: One hundred-thirty student assessment summaries, eight teacher interviews, and one institutional policy were analyzed. Three characteristics emerged that define distinction in professionalism: improvement of oneself, helping others learn, and teamwork. These characteristics are in addition to students demonstrating a clear minimum standard in all other aspects of professionalism. Insights: Findings from this project offer a first step toward a definition of distinction in professionalism for assessing student performance. The characteristics can be demonstrated by students to varying degrees of proficiency and are potentially achievable by all students. Finally, the characteristics would be required in addition to demonstrating a clear minimum standard of performance in all other aspects of professionalism and cannot be inferred by the absence of negative or unprofessional behaviors. Recognizing that conceptions of professionalism have contextual and cultural influences, the characteristics of distinction identified by this project expand the language available for teachers and learners to discuss professionalism. Teachers may use these characteristics to help inform their teaching, learning, and feedback practices. Students will gain clarity about the expectations regarding their professional behavior.

English teachers’ language awareness: away with the monolingual bias?

ABSTRACTThe training of language teachers still follows traditional models of teachers’ competences and awareness, focusing solely on the target language. Such models are incompatible with multilingual pedagogy, whereby languages are not taught in isolation, and learners’ background languages are activated to enhance the process. When teaching bilinguals/multilinguals, the English-only policy is inadequate, and teachers’ competence in only one language may not suffice. Thus, an extended model of teachers’ plurilingual awareness is proposed, including metalinguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic awareness, and the traditional model of teachers’ language awareness as a part of the cross-linguistic component. In the model, teachers’ plurilingual awareness partly stems from their multilingualism.The impact of multilingualism on teachers’ awareness was tested on Polish teachers of English (N = 222) differing in language knowledge beyond English (L3-Ln). Their attitudes towards principles of multilingual pedagogy were surveyed. Next, cluster analysis was used to differentiate between the teachers’ degrees of proficiency in other languages known, and factor analysis was run to identify the main factors in the survey, which correspond to the components in the teacher's plurilingual awareness model. A subsequent MANOVA revealed that English teachers’ multilingualism indeed underlies their plurilingual awareness and readiness to comply with multilingual approaches to teaching.

Towards a Bourdieuian Understanding of the South Asian Language Minorities’ Language Acquisition in Hong Kong

The inadequacy of Chinese language skills of the South Asian language minorities has raised concerns among educators and policymakers in recent years. Further to the notification given by the Equal Opportunities Commission to the Education Bureau of its concerns about the education of language-minority students, the provision of educational support to them became one of the priorities in the Initiatives of the 2014 Policy Address of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government. This study adopts habitus as a research method to gain a deeper understanding on the South Asian language minorities' language acquisition in Hong Kong. Whilst there are a number of initiatives to enhance the teaching and learning of Chinese for language-minority students, in this study I work closely with a group of six language minorities who studied in and graduated from the most historical designated school in Hong Kong. In attempting to understand the complexities of language practices and strategies employed by the participants to cope with their language needs in Hong Kong, I draw heavily from Bourdieu's notions of symbolic power, habitus, capital and field. The study uncovers the familial and linguistic habitus of the participants. All of them were multilingual speakers with various degrees of proficiency. Socioeconomic status appeared to have an effect on the motive for the student participants to re/produce Chinese language as their cultural capital. Meanwhile, Chinese language in terms of Cantonese was much valued by the graduate participants when they had opportunities to interact with their Chinese counterparts after they had left the designated school. The acquisition of Chinese language among the South Asian language minorities presents an interesting issue for those working in the educational field. Lacking primary familial and linguistic habitus of Chinese, the language minorities rely heavily and even entirely on the schools to help them cultivate their linguistic habitus of Chinese. I draw specifically from the relational notions of habitus and field to argue that the language minorities' linguistic habitus of Chinese can only be inculcated effectively through exposures and immersion in arenas where the Chinese counterparts are located.

The Linguistic Vitality of American Indian Sign Language: Endangered, yet Not Vanished

This article examines the linguistic status and potential for revitalization of American Indian Sign Language (AISL), which is considered an endangered language variety. It reports recent findings from the first documentary linguistics fieldwork carried out in over fifty years to focus on the AISL variety, which has been learned and used as a primary or secondary language among members of some American Indian communities since the eighteenth century and possibly earlier. AISL has been maintained over the past several generations chiefly by tribal elders and these efforts have been buoyed by deaf tribal members who have acquired it as a fluent means of communication within their own native communities. While research continues to identify different AISL dialects and the number of remaining native signers, reportedly hundreds of North American Indians still use and understand AISL to varying degrees of proficiency and mutual intelligibility. The AISL variety has been transmitted for many generations and used internationally among dozens of American Indian nations of the United States and Canada; today, representing mainly Algonquian and Siouan language families. Up to now, both deaf and hearing tribal members have served a vital role in the development and transmission of indigenous sign language. Hence, it has been well documented that American indigenous sign language served a wide variety of discourse functions and purposes—ranging from in-group (shared within a single tribe or family) to international communication (shared between different Indian tribes and nations). The article also highlights how documentary linguistics contributes to language preservation and revitalization.

Null arguments in transitional trilingual grammars: Field observations from Misionero German

AbstractIn this field note we discuss findings from pilot research on a variety of heritage German spoken in the Northeastern Province of Misiones of Argentina. Based on sociolinguistic field interviews with 25 consultants possessing varying degrees of proficiency in the language, we show that this variant of heritage German does in fact occasionally display instances of both null subjects (e.g.

DEGREES OF PROFICIENCY: ASSESSING THE PROGRESS AND ACHIEVEMENT OF UNIVERSITY LANGUAGE LEARNERS

DEGREES OF PROFICIENCY: ASSESSING THE PROGRESS AND ACHIEVEMENT OF UNIVERSITY LANGUAGE LEARNERS Get access JAMES A. COLEMAN JAMES A. COLEMAN Portsmouth Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar French Studies Bulletin, Volume 15, Issue 50, SPRING 1994, Pages 11–16, https://doi.org/10.1093/frebul/15.50.11 Published: 01 March 1994

Lexical processing in a non-native language: Effects of language proficiency and learning strategy

In three experiments, native Chinese speakers were asked to use their native and non-native languages to read and translate Chinese words and to name pictures. In Experiment 1, four groups of subjects with various degrees of proficiency in their second language, English, participated. In Experiments 2 and 3, subjects were first asked to learn a list of words in a new language, French, using either Chinese words or pictures as media; then they performed the reading, naming, and translation tasks. All subjects performed better in reading words than in naming pictures, when responding in Chinese. When the response was in the non-native language (English or French), high-learning subjects were equally efficient in translation and picture-naming tasks. Low-learning subjects, however, performed better in either the translation or the picture-naming task, depending on their learning strategies. These results are consistent with the idea that both proficiency in a non-native language and the strategy for acquiring the language are main determinants for the pattern of lexical processing in that language.

Patterns of lexical processing in a nonnative language.

In three experiments, native Cantonese speakers were asked to read words aloud, name pictures, and translate words. In the study, subjects with different degrees of proficiency in their nonnative language were used (i.e., proficient subjects, adult beginners, and second- and fourth-grade child beginners). The results show that all subjects were more efficient in reading words than in naming pictures when responding in their native language. When the response was in the nonnative language, the proficient subjects were equally efficient in both translating and picture-naming tasks. For the adult beginners, however, translating was faster than picture naming, whereas naming was faster than translating for the child beginners. These results were consistent with the idea that proficient subjects could directly access the meanings of words in the nonnative language, whereas beginners tended to use either corresponding words in the native language (i.e., the adult beginners) or pictorial representations (i.e., the child beginners) as media for such end. These results thus suggest that the proficiency of the nonnative language and the age or method of acquisition of the language are important determinants for the pattern of lexical processing in the nonnative language.

The effects of language proficiency on memory for input language

ABSTRACTThe tendency to translate from a weaker to a stronger language was investigated as a function of proficiency in the nondominant language. Three groups of native Hebrew speakers with varying degrees of proficiency in English read passages of alternating English and Hebrew sentences. Subjects identified a following recognition sentence as either “identical” to a sentence read in the passage, a “translation” of a sentence read in the passage, or “new,” and then rated their confidence. The results showed no evidence for translation processes; with respect to “identical” and “translation” pairs, none of the groups was more accurate in recognizing sentences originally presented in their dominant language. These findings, which parallel those of an earlier study in which nonfluent bilinguals were tested auditorally, reflect similar psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying nondominant language processing in speakers of different levels of proficiency. The results were related to the distinction between automatic and controlled processes involved in dominant versus nondominant language processing.

English and Sinhala bilingualism in Sri Lanka

ABSTRACTThis study describes the language situation of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and examines the factors governing the language choice of Sinhalese bilinguals while attempting to correlate such factors with domains and role relations. It also examines the way in which such correlations reflect social differences in Sri Lankan society. The use of two languages by the same speakers almost inevitably affects the forms of the languages so used. The use of English by Sinhalese speakers has led to the functional elaboration of both English and Sinhala. Bilinguals show varying degrees of proficiency in the languages they use. Such disparities in performance have led to differing patterns of bilingualism manifested in different phonological and grammatical features. Materials are drawn from the English of newspapers, fiction, drama, poetry etc. and personal knowledge. (Language as a class indicator; bilingualism; conflict of speech norms; Sri Lankan English.)

Invention and the Modern State

THE externals of modern civilization are the products of invention, and a scientific analysis of invention, what it is, what causes it and whither it is leading us, is long overdue in England. In such an analysis the statistical method must predominate and the easy generalization will have no place. It may require research of a difficult and unusual kind, but unless we know, for example, accurately and in detail, the origins, the training and the methods of successful present-day inventors, we do not know the sources of the real progress-making inventions of to-day, and while we are ignorant of that vital fact the recital of a short list of so-called working-man inventors of the eighteenth century is not merely valueless but also misleading. Mr. C. W. Marshall has just concluded in the Inventor a series of articles on “The Science of Invention”. In them he attempts to interest and guide inventors of various degrees of proficiency, but, although the trend of recent patent applications can be learned from them, the articles are entirely devoid of statistics. As a consequence of this and of the very diverse standards of the inventors to whom the articles are addressed, their total effect is confusion. At one place advice is being given as to the “psychological factor”; for example, “a camera idea, may be submitted to manufacturers in the autumn so as to be ready for the spring sales”. Shortly after this we learn or do we? that the “price of inventions used to vary from £1,000 for ‘gadgets' to half a million for inventions such as refrigeration and automatic photo machines”. Again, “There is a ready market for inventions which cheapen production of exclusive products. By introducing mass-production machines and an entirely re-designed, simplified product the early Fords were able to tap the potentially great motor-buying public”.

The Future of Radiology

The practitioner of medical radiology is so submerged in his work that he scarcely realizes the amazing history of the specialty, its present relations to other fields of medicine, or its probable future. It may be of benefit to step aside for a moment and view radiology from without, detachedly and impersonally, seeking especially to discover its defects and to suggest measures of improvement. As for its history, suffice to say, as has often been pointed out, that within less than three decades, radiant energy has become a sixth sense in the diagnosis of disease and a powerful agent in its treatment. There is no need to exaggerate the value of radiology to medicine. Its rapid growth to the high place it has attained has been along the lines of least resistance, natural and undirected. That method of increment and refinement will, perhaps, also determine largely its future. Nevertheless, radiology has now matured sufficiently to develop a degree of self-consciousness and self-determination. It is timely, then, to take an inventory of our present status, of the conditions that surround us, and of those that are not beneficial in the art of medicine. Having thus taken stock, we shall be better prepared to direct the course of radiology along more rational lines, or at least to exercise some control of its destiny. After even the most casual survey, certain defects in the present system of applying the specialty are apparent. Among them are the eccentric status of radiology as a specialty, its unsatisfactory inter-relations with other branches of medicine, the faulty co-operation among radiologists and the incoordination of research. In continental Europe, radiology is merely a feature of clinical diagnosis and treatment. The leading radiologists there are also experienced clinicians, and the clinical and radiologic viewpoints are never dissociated. In America, radiology is both more strongly differentiated from and more thoroughly entangled with other branches of medicine. At first view its status seems quite anomalous. It is practiced as an independent specialty, and as an adjunct to other specialties or to general diagnosis. It is practiced with various degrees of proficiency by ripe scholars in medicine, by novices, technicians, nurses and office assistants. In view of these facts it is not surprising that, until recently, the American Medical Association has not deemed radiology worthy of separate recognition. Radiologists have consistently objected to the haphazard work of inadequately trained physicians and laymen. Their objections have often been misconstrued as arising from personal and pecuniary motives, but, as a sober matter of fact, the conscientious radiologist has thought more of his art than of himself. Knowing that its efficient application requires thorough training, he has felt strongly that incompetent workers tended to degrade radiology, and to impair its usefulness.

Certain Violet Names

rather copious literature of violets which for several years past has occupied much space in several botanical journals of New York and Boston must have been unsatisfactory and even dull reading to as many botanists-they are very many, and scattered all over the country-who are interested in violets in the field, as nature there presents them; also I doubt that any considerable number of botanists, of whatever degrees of proficiency in knowledge of the plants, have found pages of guesses about hybrid origins, and high sounding theorizings about Mendelian laws, able to hold their very serious attention. By way of variety there is now given us a paper of considerable length on some aspects of the violet question that to the writer of the paper seem to have been too long neglected. Its leading points are nomenclatorial. This paper is from the facile pen of Mr. Eugene Bicknell of New York, and of course is far as possible from being dull, or uninstructive.' Nevertheless, the man of the facile pen, if proceeding in the name of science, may well be advised to pause, now and then, look up a page of some old volume-or one not so old-and see that his pen tells always the exact truth; for nothing else has permanent place in any science. On the matter of Viola obliqua the first statement of my friend is that The name seems first to have into the modern light in the Illustrated Flora. It seems to have been entirely forgotten here, that the name V. obliqua had emerged into the modern light as early as i 886-ten or eleven years before Mr. Bicknell's date of the emergence-in the Botanical Gazette, the man who presented it to the botanical public being 1 Viola obliqua Hill, and other Violets. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 40, pp. 26I-270. June, I9I3.