Degree Of Depolarization Research Articles

Guar gum and carboxymethyl cellulose nanocomposite loaded with piperine: A multipurpose nanoparticle with potential antibacterial and anticancer properties

Guar gum-carboxymethyl cellulose derived piperine nanocomposite (GG-CMC@PIP) was synthesized to develop a phytochemical-based nanomaterial by following a simple synthetic procedure. In this study, piperine, an alkaloid prodrug was nanonized by entrapping within guar gum-carboxymethyl cellulose derived nanocomposite (GG-CMC). GG-CMC@PIPs were of (i) size (25 ± 3) nm by TEM, (ii) zeta potential (−) 33.1 ± 0.73 mV and (iii) entrapment efficiency 86 ± 0.46 %. High loading percentage of piperine in polymeric nanocomposites revealed excellent incorporation efficiency. In addition, pH responsive release behaviour of piperine from nanocomposites exhibited sustained but faster release pattern in pH 5.5. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of piperine loaded nanocomposite on Gram positive Enterococcus faecalis and Gram-negative Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa were in the range of 200–400 μg/ml. IC50 value of GG-CMC@PIP was found to be around 500 μg/ml against C6 glioma cell line. Experimental outcome confirmed excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediated cytotoxicity, mitochondrial depolarization and higher degree of nuclear damage followed by increased mortality of C6 glioma cell after treatment with piperine-loaded nanocomposite.

Machine learning ellipsometry as a sensitive diagnostic tool to study reproductive biology in Zika virus infected murine models

Machine-learning spectroscopy is a recent scientific and fast-growing area where specific machine-learning solutions are used to process spectroscopic data beyond traditional physical modeling. Here, several machine learning models are optimized and trained for processing highly sensitive broadband variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements as a new tool in reproductive biology. This new method is applied to classify semen samples obtained from male offspring from ZIKV-infected and uninfected murine models. The method is label-free, cost-effective, simple, and reaches excellent performance. The combination of spectroscopic depolarization degree data with a well-optimized and trained SVM model resulted in the excellent performance of AUROC = 0.99, accuracy = 92%, specificity = 87% and sensibility = 97%. Optical modeling of ellipsometry spectra with Kramers–Kronigconsistent B-splines that takes care of incoherent reflections in the samples allowed for the extraction of the average semen sample refraction index for each class, revealing small differences that were attributed to the observed semen head defects, protamination failure, and DNA fragmentation.

The role of rapamycin in the PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway in mitophagy in podocytes.

This study aimed to clarify the role of rapamycin in the PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway in mitophagy in podocytes and the role of voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) in the PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway in mouse glomerular podocytes. For this purpose, podocytes were cultured with rapamycin and observed using microscopy. The apoptosis rate of podocytes was detected by flow cytometry. Changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential were measured. The autophagy-related proteins VDAC1, PINK1, Parkin, and LC3 were detected, and mitochondrial autophagosomes were observed via transmission electron microscopy. In the present study, we demonstrated that the number of podocytes treated with rapamycin was significantly reduced. Compared with those in the control group, the apoptosis rate of podocytes and the degree of mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization were significantly higher. We also found the expression levels of VDAC1, PINK1, Parkin, and LC3 were significantly increased. In the rapamycin-treated group, the numbers of swollen mitochondria and mitochondrial autophagosomes were significantly higher. Finally, we showed that rapamycin can upregulate the expression of VDAC1, PINK1, Parkin, and LC3 in glomerular podocytes, which is correlated with mitophagy. VDAC1 is involved in mitophagy and is related to the PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway, serving as an indicator of mitophagy in podocytes.

Gold nanoparticle-based biosensor for Lysozyme-DNA detection utilizing decomposition Mueller matrix polarimetry

Lysozyme serves as a crucial biomarker in the identification of several diseases, that includes breast cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, meningitis, and rheumatoid arthritis. This study proposes an innovative method for the detection of Lysozyme using a gold nanoparticle based biosensor and decomposition Muller matrix polarimetry. In the proposed study, the DNA aptamer is used as the recognition element, while the gold nanoparticles are used as a sensing element. The sensed signal is taken as the input to a Mueller matrix calculation process, which determines three optical characteristics that yield optimal results of the gold nanoparticle colloidal solution, namely the degree of depolarization, the linear diattenuation, and the depolarization index. The results have shown that all three optical parameters vary linearly with the concentration of Lysozyme throughout a broad dynamic range spanning from 0.01 to 500 pM with a limit of detection of 1.24 fM. Overall, the proposed technique provides potential tool for the detection of Lys.

Tuning Topology Phases by Controlling Effective Screening and Depolarization in Oxide Superlattices.

Polar topological phases in oxide superlattices attracted significant attention due to their unique properties. Previous work revealed that a polar vortex and polar skyrmions exist in (PTO)/(STO) superlattices under different elastic constraints, i.e., on different substrates. Here, our phase-field simulation demonstrates that manipulating the PTO and STO layers' thickness can control the effective screening provided by STO and the depolarization degree in PTO, thus switching the system among the polar skyrmions, vortex labyrinth, or paraelectric phase without changing elastic constraints. Additionally, reducing the STO thickness creates interlayer coupling among PTO layers, generating the long-range order of topological phases within superlattices. Furthermore, we construct a PTO-STO thickness topological phase diagram. These findings offer insights into the polar topological phases' formation in oxide superlattices, elucidating the roles of ferroelectric and paraelectric layers in their formation.

Raman spectroscopy of lymphocytes from patients with the Epstein–Barr virus infection

In this study, Raman spectroscopy is applied to trace lymphocytes activation following contact with the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) of the herpesvirus family. The biomarker of cell activation is found to be the 520 cm−1 band, indicating formation of immunoglobulins. The blood samples are obtained from patients diagnosed with infectious mononucleosis and treated at the University Hospital in Kraków. The lymphocytes’ Raman spectra are collected using a mapping technique, exciting samples with a 514.5 nm line of Ar + laser. Measurements are performed on the 1st, 4th, 6th, 12th and 30th day of hospitalization, until the patient has recovered. The highest intensity of the immunoglobulin marker is observed on the 4th day of hospitalization, while the results of the blood count of patients show the greatest increase in the number of lymphocytes at the beginning of hospitalization. No activated lymphocytes were observed in the blood of healthy volunteers. Some information is provided by the evaluation of B-cell activation by estimating the activated areas in the cells, which are determined by the presence of the Ig marker. The 900 cm−1 band and band around 1450 cm−1 are also analyzed as markers of the presence of the latent membrane protein, LMP2A (and 2B), of the EBV viral protein. The anomalous degree of depolarization observed in B-cells in the course of EBV infection appears to be due to the influence of a virus protein, disrupting BCR signal transduction.

Estimation of Medium Depolarization Index with Noise Immunity in Catheter-Based PS-OCT toward Vascular Plaques Detection.

Medium depolarization imaging by catheter-based polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT) can provide valuable insight into significant features of lipid, macrophages, and cholesterol crystals in atherosclerotic vulnerable plaques. In this paper, we demonstrate a method to achieve an accurate estimation of the medium depolarization index (EMDI) with noise immunity in catheter-based PS-OCT. EMDI is calculated by an iterative approximation based on Lu-Chipman matrix decomposition and Frobenius norm judgment of incoherent averaging of Mueller matrices. Monte Carlo simulation results verify that the medium depolarization measurement by EMDI is 3.3 times more accurate compared with those of the depolarization index (DI) and degree of polarization uniformity (DOPU). In experiments, we design a microsphere suspension with various concentrations and measure EMDI under different additive noise. Consistently, the measurement accuracy by EMDI is increased 2.85 times compared to those by DI and DOPU. For vascular plaques detection, we use protein and cholesterol gel as plaque phantoms. Based on PS-OCT images of plaque phantom in vitro and in ex vivo porcine coronary artery, the recognition rate of plaque by EMDI is 2.99 to 4.65 times higher than those by DI and DOPU evaluated by spatial response of the Laplacian operator (SRLO).

Disentangling Magnetic Fields in NGC 6946 with Wide-band Polarimetry

We present λ13 cm polarization observations of the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 6946 with the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) to examine the nearside halo magnetic fields. Despite λ13 cm exhibiting similar two-dimensional morphology as observed at longer (λ18–22 cm) or shorter (λ3 and λ6 cm) wavelengths, more complete frequency coverage will be required to explain the gap in polarization in the southwest quadrant of the galaxy. We fit models of the turbulent and coherent line-of-sight magnetic fields to the fractional degree of linearly polarized emission at λ3, λ6, λ13, λ18, and λ22 cm from observations taken with the WSRT, Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array, and Effelsberg telescopes. The results favor a multilayer turbulent magneto-ionized medium consistent with current observations of edge-on galaxies. We constrain the physical properties of the synchrotron-emitting thin and thick disks (scale heights of 300 pc and 1.4 kpc, respectively) along with the thermal thick disk and halo (scale heights of 1 and 5 kpc, respectively). Our preferred model indicates a clumpy and highly turbulent medium within 1 kpc of the midplane, and a diffuse extraplanar layer with a substantially lower degree of Faraday depolarization. In the halo, we estimate a regular magnetic field strength of 0.4–2.2 μG and that turbulence and a total magnetic field strength of ∼6 μG result in a Faraday dispersion of σ RM = 4–48 rad m−2. This work is an example of how the advanced capabilities of modern radio telescopes are opening a new frontier for the study of cosmic magnetism.

Depolarization Degree to Determine Dihedral Attribute of Radar Target

Depolarization Degree to Determine Dihedral Attribute of Radar Target

Propagation effects at low frequencies seen in the LOFAR long-term monitoring of the periodically active FRB 20180916B

ABSTRACT LOFAR (LOw Frequency ARray) has previously detected bursts from the periodically active, repeating fast radio burst (FRB) source FRB 20180916B down to unprecedentedly low radio frequencies of 110 MHz. Here, we present 11 new bursts in 223 more hours of continued monitoring of FRB 20180916B in the 110–188 MHz band with LOFAR. We place new constraints on the source’s activity window $w =4.3^{+0.7}_{-0.2}$ d and phase centre $\phi _{\mathrm{c}}^{\mathrm{LOFAR}} = 0.67^{+0.03}_{-0.02}$ in its 16.33-d activity cycle, strengthening evidence for its frequency-dependent activity cycle. Propagation effects like Faraday rotation and scattering are especially pronounced at low frequencies and constrain properties of FRB 20180916B’s local environment. We track variations in scattering and time–frequency drift rates, and find no evidence for trends in time or activity phase. Faraday rotation measure (RM) variations seen between June 2021 and August 2022 show a fractional change >50 per cent with hints of flattening of the gradient of the previously reported secular trend seen at 600 MHz. The frequency-dependent window of activity at LOFAR appears stable despite the significant changes in RM, leading us to deduce that these two effects have different causes. Depolarization of and within individual bursts towards lower radio frequencies is quantified using LOFAR’s large fractional bandwidth, with some bursts showing no detectable polarization. However, the degree of depolarization seems uncorrelated to the scattering time-scales, allowing us to evaluate different depolarization models. We discuss these results in the context of models that invoke rotation, precession, or binary orbital motion to explain the periodic activity of FRB 20180916B.

Інтелектуальна система оцінювання ступеня локальної деполяризації полів лазерної автофлуоресценції двопроменезаломлюючих мереж протеїнових кристалів

The theoretical foundations of the description of scattered coherent radiation fields using a new correlation parameter - the degree of local depolarization (DLD) - are presented. The data of measuring the coordinate distributions of the DLD of laser images of healthy and pathologically altered rat skin are presented. The values and ranges of change of statistical (moments of the 1st - 4th orders), correlation (correlation area) and fractal (slopes and variance of extremes of logarithmic dependences of power spectra) parameters of the coordinate distributions of the DLD are investigated. The objective criteria for diagnosing oncological changes in the structure of the rat skin are determined.

Skin cancer detection using effective optical parameters and the classification and regression tree algorithm: A novel framework

Early detection of skin cancer matters because diagnosis, prognosis and treatment plan differ for each skin cancer type at their stages. Medical imaging taking the advantages of the non-invasive and non-ionizing polarized light is emerging as a tool for the development of screening and diagnotic tests. In this work, we proposed a novel framework to classify human melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer using the Classification and Regression Tree algorithm (CART). The samples were prepared from twenty-four non-melanoma skin cancer samples (consisting of twelve squamous cell carcinoma and twelve basal cell carcinoma samples); and three melanoma skin cancer samples. We calculated ten optical parameters from anisotropic biological tissues, namely the LB orientation angle (α), the LB phase retardance (β), the CB optical rotation angle (γ), the LD orientation angle (θd), the linear dichroism (D), the circular dichroism (R), the degrees of linear depolarization (e1 and e2), the degree of circular depolarization (e3), and the depolarization index (∆) using Stokes-Mueller matrix formalism. All effective optical parameters of biological tissue were then input into the CART classifier as predictors. The model yielded an accuracy of 92.6%, which is desirable for any robust and interpretable classification model. The results showed that for biological tissue samples, linear polarization properties dominate over circular ones due to the cellular microstructural composition of tissue, especially under anomalous growth as seen in skin cancer. This novel framework can potentially assist physicians in making timely and well-informed medical decisions.

The Statistical Polarization Properties of Coherent Curvature Radiation by Bunches: Application to Fast Radio Burst Repeaters

Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are extragalactic radio transients with a millisecond duration and an extremely high brightness temperature. Very recently, some highly circularly polarized bursts were found in a repeater, FRB 20201124A. The significant circular polarization might be produced by coherent curvature radiation by bunches with the line of sight (LOS) deviating from the bunch central trajectories. In this work, we carry out simulations to study the statistical properties of burst polarization within the framework of coherent curvature radiation by charged bunches in the neutron star magnetosphere for repeating FRBs. The flux is almost constant within the opening angle of the bunch. However, when the LOS derives from the bunch opening angle, the larger the derivation, the larger the circular polarization but the lower the flux. We investigate the statistical distribution of circular polarization and flux of radio bursts from an FRB repeater, and find that most of the bursts with high circular polarization have a relatively low flux. Besides, we find that most of the depolarization degrees of bursts have a small variation in a wide frequency band. Furthermore, we simulate the polarization angle (PA) evolution and find that most bursts show a flat PA evolution within the burst phases, and some bursts present a swing of the PA.

Optical anisotropy composition of benign and malignant prostate tissues revealed by Mueller-matrix imaging.

A Mueller matrix imaging approach is employed to disclose the three-dimensional composition framework of optical anisotropy within cancerous biotissues. Visualized by the Mueller matrix technique spatial architecture of optical anisotropy of tissues is characterised by high-order statistical moments. Thus, quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution of optical anisotropy, such as linear and circular birefringence and dichroism, is revealed by using high-order statistical moments, enabling definitively discriminate prostate adenoma and carcinoma. The developed approach provides greater (>90%) accuracy of diagnostic achieved by using either the 3-rd or 4-th order statistical moments of the linear anisotropy parameters. Noticeable difference is observed between prostate adenoma and carcinoma tissue samples in terms of the extinction coefficient and the degree of depolarisation. Juxtaposition to other optical diagnostic modalities demonstrates the greater accuracy of the approach described herein, paving the way for its wider application in cancer diagnosis and tissue characterization.

Effects of depolarizing intervening galaxies on background radio emission. I. Global disk magnetic field

Abstract External galaxies often intervene in front of background radio sources such as quasars and radio galaxies. Linear polarization of the background emission is depolarized by Faraday rotation of inhomogeneous magnetized plasma of the intervening galaxies. Exploring the depolarizing intervening galaxies (DINGs) can be a powerful tool to investigate the cosmological evolution of the galactic magnetic field. In this paper, we investigate the effects of DINGs on background radio emission using theoretical DING models. We find that complex structures of galaxy result in complicated depolarization features and Faraday dispersion functions (FDFs), but, for the features of depolarizations and FDFs, the global component of magnetic fields is important. We show the simplest results with ring magnetic field in the galactic disk. We find that the degree of depolarization significantly depends on the inclination angle and the impact parameter of the DING. We found that the larger the standard deviation, the more likely it is that depolarization will occur. The FDF represents the rotation measure (RM) structure within the beam. The FDF exhibits multi-components due mainly to the RM structure within the beam and the fraction of the DING that covers the background emission (the filling factor). The peak Faraday depth of the FDF is different from the beam-averaged RM of the DING. The Monte Carlo simulations indicate that a DING’s contribution to the standard deviation of observed RMs follows σRM ∝ 1/(1 + z)k with k ∼ 2.7 and exhibits a steeper redshift dependence than the wavelength squared. DINGs will have a significant impact on RM catalogs created by future survey projects such as the Square Kilometer Array (SKA) and SKA Precursor/Pathfinder.

PINK1 mediated mitophagy attenuates early apoptosis of gingival epithelial cells induced by high glucose

BackgroundOxidative stress mediated by hyperglycemia damages cell-reparative processes such as mitophagy. Down-regulation of mitophagy is considered to be a susceptible factor for diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications. However, the role of mitophagy in DM-associated periodontitis has not been fully elucidated. Apoptosis of human gingival epithelial cells (hGECs) is one of the representative events of DM-associated periodontitis. Thus, this study aimed to investigate PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1)-mediated mitophagy activated in the process of high glucose (HG)-induced hGECs apoptosis.MethodsFor dose–response studies, hGECs were incubated in different concentrations of glucose (5.5, 15, 25, and 50 mmol/L) for 48 h. Then, hGECs were challenged with 25 mmol/L glucose for 12 h and 48 h, respectively. Apoptosis was detected by TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL), caspase 9 and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Subsequently, autophagy was evaluated by estimating P62, LC3 II mRNA levels, LC3 fluorescent puncta and LC3-II/I ratio. Meanwhile, the involvement of PINK1-mediated mitophagy was assessed by qRT-PCR, western blotting and immunofluorescence. Finally, hGECs were transfected with shPINK1 and analyzed by MMP, caspase 9 and annexin V-FITC apoptosis.ResultsThe number of TUNEL-positive cells and caspase 9 protein were significantly increased in cells challenged with HG (25 mmol/L) for 48 h (HG 48 h). MMP was impaired both at HG 12 h and HG 48 h, but the degree of depolarization was more serious at HG 48 h. The autophagy improved as the amount of LC3 II increased and p62 decreased in HG 12 h. During this process, HG 12 h treatment induced PINK1-mediated mitophagy. PINK1 silencing with HG 12 h resulted in MMP depolarization and cell apoptosis.ConclusionsThese results suggested that loss of the PINK1 gene may cause mitochondrial dysfunction and increase sensitivity to HG-induced apoptosis of hGECs at the early stage. PINK1 mediated mitophagy attenuates early apoptosis of gingival epithelial cells induced by high glucose.

The Quantum Tunneling of Ions Model Can Explain the Pathophysiology of Tinnitus.

Tinnitus is a well-known pathological entity in clinical practice. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms behind tinnitus seem to be elusive and cannot provide a comprehensive understanding of its pathogenesis and clinical manifestations. Hence, in the present study, we explore the mathematical model of ions’ quantum tunneling to propose an original pathophysiological mechanism for the sensation of tinnitus. The present model focuses on two major aspects: The first aspect is the ability of ions, including sodium, potassium, and calcium, to depolarize the membrane potential of inner hair cells and the neurons of the auditory pathway. This membrane depolarization is induced via the quantum tunneling of ions through closed voltage-gated channels. The state of membrane depolarization can be a state of hyper-excitability or hypo-excitability, depending on the degree of depolarization. Both of these states aid in understanding the pathophysiology of tinnitus. The second aspect is the quantum tunneling signals between the demyelinated neurons of the auditory pathway. These signals are mediated via the quantum tunneling of potassium ions, which exit to the extracellular fluid during an action potential event. These quantum signals can be viewed as a “quantum synapse” between neurons. The formation of quantum synapses results in hyper-excitability among the demyelinated neurons of the auditory pathway. Both of these aspects augment and amplify the electrical signals in the auditory pathway and result in a loss of the spatiotemporal fidelity of sound signals going to the brain centers. The brain interprets this hyper-excitability and loss of spatiotemporal fidelity as tinnitus. Herein, we show mathematically that the quantum tunneling of ions can depolarize the membrane potential of the inner hair cells and neurons of the auditory pathway. Moreover, we calculate the probability of action potential induction in the neurons of the auditory pathway generated by the quantum tunneling signals of potassium ions.

In-situ monitoring calcium signaling through tumor microtubes for single cell-cell communication via an open microfluidic probe

Cell-to-cell communication at a single cell resolution level is essential for the regulation of cell metastasis and invasion. In this work, an open microfluidic probe was established to investigate a dynamic calcium signal transmission between single cell via tumor microtubes (TMs) structure connected. Compared with traditional single cell-cell communication, the open microfluidic probe could provide a single cell stimulation with lower cellular damage via an injection-aspiration laminar flow in-situ, avoiding a complicated process for the capture of single cell pairs. Meanwhile, the open microfluidic probe enabled a different stimulation environment for the target cell pair to record a dynamic signal transmission, rather than a balanced result with same microenvironment. On such a single cell stimulation platform, the heterogeneity of depolarization response in glioma cells was explored. An obvious signal transmission between TM-connected cell pairs could also be observed after a single cell stimulation. Subsequently, an opposite-direction motion in TM-connected cell pairs was recorded, which tends to be ignored at the cell population level. And the degree of cell depolarization would be positive correlation with the tumor motion. These results could indicate such an open microfluidic probe could provide a new perspective for single cell analysis and the opposite-direction motion in TM-connected cell pairs could be applied in the future investigation on the tumor metastasis and invasion mechanism.

Study on the Transmission Characteristics of Polarized Laser in the Complicated Dust Environment on Mars

In this paper, for the dust environment in complicated atmospheric on Mars, the Martian atmosphere is vertically stratified based on the vertical distribution characteristic of Martian dust particles. Combining the number concentration and particle size distribution of each layer of dust, the transmission characteristics of polarized laser in the Martian dust are studied by using the polarized Monte Carlo method. The results show that among the six selected wavelengths, the transmittance of the wavelength of 7.46 μm in Martian dust is the largest, while the laser intensity attenuation of the wavelength of 0.49 μm in Martian dust is the largest. The horizontally polarized laser of the wavelength of 0.55 μm (effective variance b = 0.1 μm) is taken as an example; the depolarization degree of the polarized laser under stratified conditions increases from the minimum value of 3.5440157e − 4 at 0 km to the maximum value of 0.0092563 at 24 km, with an increase of 0.00890189843; while the depolarization degree under nonstratified conditions increases from the minimum value of 1.2678582e − 4 at 0 km to the maximum value of 0.0045636 at 24 km, with an increase of only 0.004436842, the degree of depolarization under the condition of stratified is greater than that of nonstratified. On the whole, for different effective variance b, the variation trend of the polarization parameter with height for different polarized laser is basically identical.

Engineered Hydroxyapatite Nanoadjuvants with Controlled Shape and Aspect Ratios Reveal Their Immunomodulatory Potentials.

Hydroxyapatite (HAP) has been formulated as adjuvants in vaccines for human use. However, the optimal properties required for HAP nanoparticles to elicit adjuvanticity and the underlying immunopotentiation mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Herein, a library of HAP nanorods and nanospheres was synthesized to explore the effect of the particle shape and aspect ratio on the immune responses in vitro and adjuvanticity in vivo. It was demonstrated that long aspect ratio HAP nanorods induced a higher degree of cell membrane depolarization and subsequent uptake, and the internalized particles elicited cathepsin B release and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation, which further led to pro-inflammatory responses. Furthermore, the physicochemical property-dependent immunostimulation capacities were correlated with their humoral responses in a murine hepatitis B surface antigen immunization model, with long aspect ratio HAP nanorods inducing higher antigen-specific antibody productions. Importantly, HAP nanorods significantly up-regulated the IFN-γ secretion and CD107α expression on CD8+ T cells in immunized mice. Further mechanistic studies demonstrated that HAP nanorods with defined properties exerted immunomodulatory effects by enhanced antigen persistence and immune cell recruitments. Our study provides a rational design strategy for engineered nanomaterial-based vaccine adjuvants.