Peatland Degradation Research Articles

InSAR Time Series Analysis of L-Band Data for Understanding Tropical Peatland Degradation and Restoration

In this study, satellite radar observations are employed to reveal spatiotemporal changes in ground surface height of peatlands that have, and have not, undergone restoration in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Our time series analysis of 26 scenes of Advanced Land Observation Satellite-1 (ALOS-1) Phased-Array L-band Synthetic-Aperture Radar (PALSAR) images acquired between 2006 and 2010 suggests that peatland restoration was positively affected by the construction time of dams—the earlier the dam was constructed, the more significant the restoration appears. The results also suggest that the dams resulted in an increase of ground water level, which in turn stopped peat losing height. For peatland areas without restoration, the peatland continuously lost peat height by up to 7.7 cm/yr. InSAR-derived peat height changes allow the investigation of restoration effects over a wide area and can also be used to indirectly assess the relative magnitude and spatial pattern of peatland damage caused by drainage and fires. Such an assessment can provide key information for guiding future restoration activities.

Peatland degradation: The relationship between raised bog hydrology and normalized difference vegetation index

AbstractPeatlands are recognized as important landscape elements and their disturbance, followed by the loss of their ecohydrological functions, leads to falling water tables and degradation. Sometimes, the shortage of hydrological monitoring data impedes the detection of degrading peatland areas. The application of cost‐effective remote sensing methods for assessment of humidity conditions permits monitoring of a large area and longer periods of time. Therefore, in this study, we assessed the links between hydrological parameters and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) as well as identifying spatio‐temporal patterns in the condition of raised bog vegetation, according to NDVI, in the Čepkeliai raised bog, a semipristine peatland in south‐eastern Lithuania. Time series of NDVI (2000–2018) were obtained from the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer and compared with field measurements. A strong positive correlation between NDVI and water table depth was found. Moderate (for the whole raised bog) and strong (for control subbasin) positive correlations between NDVIavg and annual minimum flow over 30 and 7 days were found. This confirms that NDVI could be treated as an appropriate indicator, showing the degradation processes of the raised bog ecosystem and could be applied in its management. Analysis of the interannual NDVIavg variation confirmed the prevalence of stable favourable conditions during the growing season with a slight decrease in NDVImax over last 4 years. Meanwhile, analysis of spatial NDVI variation revealed obvious spatial patterns where possible degradation processes tend to appear.

Effects of distance from canal and degradation history on peat bulk density in a degraded tropical peatland

Over recent decades, the combination of deforestation, peat drainage and fires have resulted in widespread degradation of Southeast Asia's tropical peatlands. These disturbances are generally thought to increase peat soil bulk density through peat drying and shrinkage, compaction, and consolidation. Biological oxidation and fires burning across these landscapes also consume surface peat, exposing older peat strata. The prevalence and severity of deforestation, peat drainage and fire are typically greater closer to canals, built to drain peatlands and provide access routes for people. We compared bulk densities of 240cm peat profiles from intact forests and degraded peatlands broadly, and also assessed differences between degraded peatlands near-to-canals (50–200m from the nearest canal) and far-from-canals (300+ m from the nearest canal). The effects of vegetation type and fire frequency on bulk density, irrespective of the distance from canal, were also investigated. Mean bulk density values ranged between 0.08 and 0.16gcm−3 throughout the 240cm peat profiles. Drainage of peat near-to-canals increased bulk density of peat above the minimum water table depth. Degradation by deforestation and fire also increased bulk densities of upper peat strata, albeit with greater variability. Peat sampled further from canals experienced less intense water table drawdowns, buffering them from drainage effects. These areas were also more commonly forested and burnt less frequently. Differences in bulk densities below minimum water table levels are less clear, but may reflect lowering of the current peat surface in degraded peatlands broadly. These results clearly show that important differences in bulk density exist across degraded peatlands that are spatially dependent on distance from canals and disturbance history. These landscape features should be taken into account when designing future bulk density sampling efforts and peatland restoration programs, or when extrapolating from existing sources in order to make accurate inferences from them.

C mobilisation in disturbed tropical peat swamps: old DOC can fuel the fluvial efflux of old carbon dioxide, but site recovery can occur

Southeast-Asian peat swamp forests have been significantly logged and converted to plantation. Recently, to mitigate land degradation and C losses, some areas have been left to regenerate. Understanding how such complex land use change affects greenhouse gas emissions is essential for modelling climate feedbacks and supporting land management decisions. We carried out field research in a Malaysian swamp forest and an oil palm plantation to understand how clear-felling, drainage, and illegal and authorized conversion to oil palm impacted the C cycle, and how the C cycle may change if such logging and conversion stopped. We found that both the swamp forest and the plantation emit centuries-old CO2 from their drainage systems in the managed areas, releasing sequestered C to the atmosphere. Oil palm plantations are an iconic symbol of tropical peatland degradation, but CO2 efflux from the recently-burnt, cleared swamp forest was as old as from the oil palm plantation. However, in the swamp forest site, where logging had ceased approximately 30 years ago, the age of the CO2 efflux was modern, indicating recovery of the system can occur. 14C dating of the C pool acted as a tracer of recovery as well as degradation and offers a new tool to assess efficacy of restoration management. Methane was present in many sites, and in higher concentrations in slow-flowing anoxic systems as degassing mechanisms are not strong. Methane loading in freshwaters is rarely considered, but this may be an important C pool in restored drainage channels and should be considered in C budgets and losses.

Small-Scale Spatial Variability of Soil Chemical and Biochemical Properties in a Rewetted Degraded Peatland

There is indication in the literature that degradation of natural peatlands reduced spatial variability of soil chemical and biochemical properties. However, we lack empirical data on the impact of rewetting peatland on the spatial variability of these properties. To investigate the spatial variability of the soil properties, we collected soil samples from the depths of 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm in a rewetted peatland of northern Germany. Overall, we collected 50 samples from 50 grid cells, and the area of each grid cell was 9.0 m2. We measured 34 important soil chemical and biochemical properties and evaluated the data with descriptive and geospatial statistical analyses. The concentrations of most plant available nutrient elements were low with high coefficients of variation (CV) that ranged from 15 to 117%, whereas the CV of most of the total and oxalate extracted elements was 15% CV. The degree of phosphorus (P) saturation (DPS) and P saturation ratio (PSR) were 11% and 0.05, which were low as compared to the threshold levels of 25% DPS and 0.11 PSR for mineral and wetland soils. The microbial biomass C and N ranged from 389 to 2463 mg kg-1 and 32 to 215 mg kg-1 at the depth of 0-10 cm and from 343 to 1570 mg kg-1 and 14 to 160 mg kg-1 at the depth of 10-20 cm, respectively. Similarly, the dehydrogenase and -glucosidase activities were lower by 76 and 61% at the soil depth of 10-20 cm compared to the upper 10 cm. The geospatial statistical analysis revealed that 87% of the soil chemical properties were spatially correlated and 85% of the spatial correlation was strong with less than 0.20 nugget to sill ratio at 5 to 12 m ranges. Similarly, 86 and 71% of the biochemical properties were strongly spatially correlated at the depth of 0-10 and 10-20 cm, respectively, with 0.16 nugget to sill ratio at the short ranges (4 to 6 m). The strong spatial correlation of most of the soil chemical and biochemical properties at short ranges indicate the high variability of the rewetted peatland.

Are national commitments to reducing emissions from forests effective? Lessons from Indonesia

For Indonesia to achieve its greenhouse gas emission reduction commitments, it will have to reduce emissions from deforestation, forest degradation and peatland degradation. The National Action Plan for Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions was Indonesia's first comprehensive plan. It reflected Indonesia's emission reduction commitments to 2020, and the first phase ran from 2010 to 2014. This research evaluates its design and implementation. It assesses seven out of thirteen actions that were implemented to reduce emissions from forestry and peatland degradation. It is shown that only two actions had a direct, evidence-based link to emission sources. Three actions had some evidence of a link, albeit dependent on many factors. For the remaining two actions, focused on emissions from agriculture in peatland, there was no information to demonstrate clear and targeted implementation of the actions. The analysis also shows that the indicators listed in the National Action Plan were insufficient to demonstrate meaningful reductions of emissions. Part of the explanation for the problematic design of the actions is that many of them were pre-existing policies, aimed at achieving a variety of different objectives that were just rebadged as climate change actions.

Peatland degradation reduces methanogens and methane emissions from surface to deep soils

Abstract Peatland degradation is expected to increase the rate of aerobic decomposition in surface soil (0–30 cm). Carbon stored in both the subsurface (30–60 cm) and deeper layers (>60 cm) of peatlands is also expected to be metabolized after degradation. However, little is known about how methane were emissions from subsurface and the deeper layers of peatlands during degradation. Three peatland degradation stages: S1, intact fen with high water table; S2, lightly degraded fen with a fluctuating water table; S3, heavily degraded fen with a lower water table were chosen to quantify the differences in CH 4 emissions at different peatland degradation stages. CH 4 emissions and methanogens of subsurface and deep soil were also measured to reveal the contribution rates of subsurface methane emission in this study. After four-years experiment, we found that the abundance of methanogens and methane emissions decreased as peatlands were more heavily degraded. We also found that the contribution rate of methane emission decreased from peat surface to subsurface and deep layer, and this trend varied with peatland degradation. A higher contribution rate was found in the subsurface methane emissions from S1 (32.63%) and S2 (19.94%). Importantly, when peatlands were heavily degraded, the subsurface changed from a CH 4 source to a sink. Decreased methane emissions of the degraded peatlands was also associated with a high abundance of methanogens (R 2 = 0.75, p

Mapping landscape-scale peatland degradation using airborne lidar and multispectral data

ContextAn increased interest in the restoration of peatlands for delivering multiple benefits requires a greater understanding of the extent and location of natural and artificial features that contribute to degradation.ObjectivesWe assessed the utility of multiple, fine-grained remote sensing datasets for mapping peatland features and associated degraded areas at a landscape-scale. Specifically, we developed an integrated approach to identify and quantify multiple types of peatland degradation including: anthropogenic drainage ditches and peat cuttings; erosional gullies and bare peat areas.MethodsAirborne LiDAR, CASI and aerial image datasets of the South West UK, were combined to identify features within Dartmoor National Park peatland area that contribute to degradation. These features were digitised and quantified using ArcGIS before appropriate buffers were applied to estimate the wider ecohydrologically affected area.ResultsUsing fine-scale, large-extent remotely sensed data, combined with aerial imagery enabled key features within the wider expanse of peatland to be successfully identified and mapped at a resolution appropriate to future targeted restoration. Combining multiple datasets increased our understanding of spatial distribution and connectivity within the landscape. An area of 29 km2 or 9.2% of the Dartmoor peatland area was identified as significantly and directly ecohydrologically degraded.ConclusionsUsing a combination of fine-grained remotely sensed datasets has advantages over traditional ground survey methods for identification and mapping of anthropogenic and natural erosion features at a landscape scale. The method is accurate, robust and cost-effective particularly given the remote locations and large extent of these landscapes, facilitating effective and targeted restoration planning, management and monitoring.

Coupled impact of decadal precipitation and evapotranspiration on peatland degradation in the Zoige basin, China

ABSTRACTThis study quantified the temporal properties of precipitation and actual evapotranspiration (ETa) in the Zoige basin of the Yellow River source region, China during the 1967–2011 period, as well as their influence to the area reduction of peatland. We extracted areas of different land-use and land-cover (LULC) types and obtained daily precipitation data. Then, we calculated annual precipitation (AP) and specific cumulative precipitation (SCP), which is the sum of precipitation to the date when an image was taken, and showed that the peatland areas were strongly affected by SCP. Using a modified Penman–Monteith equation, we calculated ETa for each LULC type and the area-weighted ones to show that the area-weighted total ETa was mainly contributed from grassland and peatland, which was between 450 and 550 mm. Temporal trends of the ratio of SCP to evapotranspiration showed that precipitation was generally greater than evapotranspiration rate not only during the summer but also over the 1967–2011 period. This trend failed to completely explain the continuous decrease of peatland area in the Zoige basin in decades. The draining effect of artificial ditches and natural gullies might play an additional role in causing peatland degradation but requires further process-based studies.

Exploration of the importance of physical properties of Indonesian peatlands to assess critical groundwater table depths, associated drought and fire hazard

Widespread degradation of Indonesian peatlands by deforestation and excessive drainage results into more frequent fires, particularly in El Niño years, which causes: (i) release of enormous amounts of peat soil carbon to the atmosphere, impacting climate, (ii) severe air pollution, affecting human health and air traffic, and (iii) decreased ecosystem services through loss of biodiversity. Groundwater table decline is the main driver of these negative processes and, therefore restoration of peatland hydrology is essential. Although groundwater table depth is critical to counteract peatland degradation, optimal depths are not generic for all peatlands, but depend on peat physical properties (i.e. water retention, unsaturated conductivity), which are related to the degree of peat humification (Fibric, Hemic, Sapric). Unfortunately only few of these peat physical properties are available while they are essential input data in hydrological models required to extend the usually short observed groundwater hydrographs. An experiment with the Soil-Water-Atmosphere-Plant model (SWAP) for two locations in Indonesian peatlands illustrates the impact of the degree of peat humification on physical properties and thereby on calculated groundwater table depth, hydrological drought and associated fires hazards. The Variable Threshold Method is applied to convert groundwater table depths into hydrological drought, and next the modified Keetch-Byram Drought Index (mKBDI) is used to assess wildfire hazard. Peat physical properties that reflect higher peat humification (Hemic and Sapric) result into lower water tables during dry periods, in particular during El Niño years, more severe hydrological drought, and an earlier and longer fire season. Using the limited available peat physical properties the importance is demonstrated of initiating a comprehensive programme to build a database of peat physical properties covering different environmental conditions in which tropical peatlands occur. Availability of such a database connected to a long-term monitoring programme, will support the ongoing rewetting, revegetation and revitalisation programme for Indonesian peatlands, which eventually will contribute to sustainable livelihoods for local people and reduce impact on the regional climate.

Development Paludiculture on Tropical Peatland for Productive and Sustainable Ecosystem in Riau

There are 2 million hectares of tropical peatland that are critical and must be restored by the Indonesian Government to reduce the greenhouse effect until 2020. The clear-cutting of peat swamp forests has changed from natural ecosystems into degraded ecosystems. When peat was dried for monoculture, it will stimulate forest fires. Peatland forest fire in 2015, caused Indonesia as one of the largest CO2 emitters in the world. The magnitude of the increase in CO2 emissions due to land use change caused peatland degradation. Paludiculture is an alternative technique for managing productive peatlands for food crops while maintaining ecological functions. Rewetting in peatland could reduce the emission of carbon, while food crops increase the quality and quantity of biomass. The plasticulture system can produce biomass on wet peatland conditions, maintain the sustainability of ecosystem services and can increase carbon accumulation. The principle in paludiculture is to restore the sustainability of the peat ecosystem while still paying attention to economic interests. Development of paludiculture of peat swamps land in Kepulauan Meranti Riau is very suitable to be implemented because could support their function of the hydrological buffer in natural peat swamp forest and source of food.

The determination of peatland critical criteria and classifications: A Case study of peatland in Pontianak City, West Kalimantan Province

Critical land is one of the degraded lands causing a temporary or permanent decline in land productivity. It is characterized by the decrease of physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. The objectives of this study were to determine the determinant factor that affects the criticality level of peatlands and to set up criteria and classifications of peatland criticality degree (level)based on the determinant factors through discriminant approach. The determination of location was based on the most used land and land-use differences. The land use consists of acacia, horticulture and pineapple plantation. The research stages included the observation and measurement of land physical characteristics including water tabel and peat, soil sampling and analysis of soil physical and chemical characteristics. The data analysis included classical assumption consisting of multikolineritas, autocorrelation, and heterokedastisitas from an independent variable to land type, regression analysis and multivariate analysis of the determinants of peatland degradation and cluster analysis in classifying critical peatlands. The results show that there are varieties of physical, chemical and biological factors in acacia, horticulture and pineapple plantation.The four critical determinants of peatland are total phosphorus, number of bacterial, number of fungi and peat depth. The three critical land classifications are Critical, Non-Critical, and Non-Critical without soil tillage and drainage. The information about the criticality factors of peatland is expected to be considered to rehabilitate peatland and improve criteria of critical peatland.

Effects of peat decomposition on δ13C and δ15N depth profiles of Alpine bogs

Decomposition of organic substances is one of the main processes responsible for the signatures of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes (δ13C and δ15N) in soils and peats. However, the applicability of δ13C and δ15N signatures at the natural abundance level as indicators of the degree of peat decomposition is still debatable. We evaluated δ13C and δ15N depth patterns of peat cores sampled at nine sites in two nearby Alpine peat bogs with varying degree of organic matter degradation. Based on water table depths and past drainage intensities, the peat cores were divided into three degradation classes. We found similar overall depths patterns of δ13C and δ15N across the nine depth profiles and distinct differences between aerobic and anaerobic peat layers. Considerable differences in stable C and N isotope signatures of same depths were detected between profiles of the three classes, whereas depth profiles of peat cores with similar degree in peatland degradation were nearly identical. In the aerobic peat layers, δ13C and δ15N increased with depths at all study sites from 2.6‰ to 4.9‰ for δ13C and 3.2‰ to 7.0‰ for δ15N compared to the initial signatures of the plant biomass. Standardised δ13C of aerobic layers differ distinctly between slightly degraded peats at the open peat bog area, intermediately degraded peats at the tree-covered edge areas and strongly degraded peats at the former peat-cutting site. δ13C signatures of aerobic layers of strongly degraded peats were markedly more negative compared to the slightly degraded peats because of the selective 12C losses by microbial respiration. δ15N were more positive at strongly degraded than at slightly degraded sites in both, aerobic and anaerobic peat layers. The uniform stable isotope ratios in the anaerobic layers deeper than the local maxima of the isotopic signatures support the assumption that minor 13C fractionation occurs under anaerobic conditions. δ13C slightly declining with depth in the waterlogged layers of strongly degraded peat reflects the preferential utilisation and loss of labile organic compounds enriched in 13C. δ15N of strongly degraded peats was higher compared to well-conserved peat. The close relationship between the measured δ15N to δ15N modelled based on C:N ratios and bulk densities supports the assumption that the δ15N signature is the result of isotopic fractionation by peat decomposition. We conclude that peat decomposition strongly affects the δ13C and δ15N depth profiles of peat bogs and most likely overrides other factors, such as differences between plant species, litter components, atmospheric δ13C shift during peat formation, temperature effects, or type of mycorrhizal symbiosis.

Impact of natural gullies on groundwater hydrology in the Zoige peatland, China

Study regionThe study area was in the upland peatland within the Zoige basin with elevations ranging between 3400 and 3800 m. It is located in the source area of Upper Yellow River that is developed on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Study focusWe examined possible influence of two different types of gullies on groundwater hydrology in this alpine peatland, the gullies whose beds cutting through the peat layer and those whose beds are within the peat layer. We measured saturated hydraulic conductivity, hydraulic head, and water table levels both vertically and horizontally in three representative sites distributed in the study area representing blanket peatland and peats surrounded by two types of the gullies during May 11–23, 2017. Using these data, we showed that different patterns of these parameters in both directions may be clearly observed among the three sites. New hydrological insights for the regionWe have shown for the first time in this region that (1) gullies with the bed cutting through the peat layer may have profound impact on peat groundwater hydrology; (2) groundwater seepage at the bottom of the peat layer may be enhanced by gullies with the bed cutting through the peat layer; and (3) increased groundwater seepage could be an additional cause for peatland degradation during the prolonged dry and cold period of a year.

Socio Economic Factors Causing Rapid Peatlands Degradation in South Sumatra

Naturally peatlands ecosystem belongs to a stable ecosystem and tends to increase its peat thickness, but if the balance of its natural conditions is disturbed, then peatlands are easily degraded and lost altogether. The research aimed to analyze the socio-economic determinant factors causing why peatlands in South Sumatra are rapidly degraded, thus it is threatening the existence of the human life support system. The research method was using an explorative and descriptive method by making the web portal of Google search engine. Keywords were used for searching ‘peatland’, ‘degradation’ and/or ‘socio-economic causes’ in title and abstract. To analyze priority level of socio-economic aspects in contributing to peatlands degradation, thus an AHP analysis was conducted and interview with selected respondents. The research resulted that socio-economic determinant factors causing peatlands degradation are complex and integrated each other. Based on clustering the main sequence of causing peatlands degradation was performed by increasing population; increasing poverty; win-win approach; security of land ownership; and agricultural infrastructure and expansion respectively. Understanding this cluster with a comprehensive approach is needed to decide what factors play in the degradation of peatland, so that the policies made are precise and targeted. At this time the government requires to restore peatlands, so that peatlands can be preserved forever.

Physical and hydrological properties of peat as proxies for degradation of South African peatlands: Implications for conservation and restoration

Physical and hydrological properties of peat as proxies for degradation of South African peatlands: Implications for conservation and restoration

The Invisible Carbon Footprint as a hidden impact of peatland degradation inducing marine carbonate dissolution in Sumatra, Indonesia

In Indonesia, land use change (LUC) in the form of peatland degradation induces carbon loss through direct CO2 emissions, but also via soil leaching of which circa 50% is decomposed and emitted as CO2 from the rivers. However, the fate of the remaining exported leached carbon is uncertain. Here, we show that the majority of this carbon is respired in the estuaries and emitted to the atmosphere. However, a portion is adsorbed into the marine carbon pool where it favors CaCO3 dissolution and can therefore be seen as the invisible carbon footprint. We conclude that the effects of LUC stretch beyond the terrestrial realm and are not limited to CO2 emissions, but also affect marine ecosystems. Considering the ecological and economical importance of these ecosystems, it is important that this so far invisible carbon footprint, as well as the aquatic and marine CO2 emissions, are included in climate mitigation strategies.

Characterizing Hydrological Connectivity of Artificial Ditches in Zoige Peatlands of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Peats have the unique ability of effectively storing water and carbon. Unfortunately, this ability has been undermined by worldwide peatland degradation. In the Zoige Basin, located in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China, peatland degradation is particularly severe. Although climate change and (natural and artificial) drainage systems have been well-recognized as the main factors catalyzing this problem, little is known about the impact of the latter on peatland hydrology at larger spatial scales. To fill this gap, we examined the hydrological connectivity of artificial ditch networks using Google Earth imagery and recorded hydrological data in the Zoige Basin. After delineating from the images of 1392 ditches and 160 peatland patches in which these ditches were clustered, we calculated their lengths, widths, areas, and slopes, as well as two morphological parameters, ditch density (Dd) and drainage ability (Pa). The subsequent statistical analysis and examination of an index defined as the product Dd and Pa showed that structural hydrological connectivity, which was quantitatively represented by the value of this index, decreased when peatland patch areas increased, suggesting that ditches in small patches have higher degrees of hydrological connectivity. Using daily discharge data from three local gauging stations and Manning’s equation, we back-calculated the mean ditch water depths (Dm) during raining days of a year and estimated based on Dm the total water volume drained from ditches in each patch (V) during annual raining days. We then demonstrated that functional hydrological connectivity, which may be represented by V, generally decreased when patch areas increased, more sensitive to changes of ditch number and length in larger peatland patches. Furthermore, we found that the total water volume drained from all ditches during annual raining days only took a very small proportion of the total volume of stream flow out of the entire watershed (0.0012%) and this nature remained similar for the past 30 years, suggesting that during annual rainfall events, water drained from connected ditches is negligible. This revealed that the role of connected artificial ditches in draining peatland water mainly takes effect during the prolonged dry season of a year in the Zoige Basin.

Water table drawdown reshapes soil physicochemical characteristics in Zoige peatlands

Warming and human activities have caused peatland degradation and water table drawdown, which greatly influence the physicochemical characteristics of soil at different depths. How water table drawdown affects soil physicochemical characteristics is not well understood for the Tibetan Plateau, especially the Zoige peatlands. This study measured variations in C/N ratio, ash content, δ13C, and humification index (HI) as a function of water table drawdown and depth by sampling 100-cm soil columns from three sites with different water tables in the Zoige peatlands. C/N ratio decreased while ash content and HI increased with water table drawdown, suggesting greater decomposition of soil organic matter at sites with a lower water table. The response of soil physicochemical characteristics to water table drawdown varied with depth: in the layer above the water table, C/N ratio did not vary, ash content decreased and HI increased; in the layer below the water table, C/N ratio and HI decreased, while ash content increased. The physicochemical characteristics above the water table were influenced mainly by new carbon input, while the characteristics below the water table were influenced mainly by decomposition. The depth profile of C/N ratio, ash content and HI aligned well with peat formation and decomposition and may be indicators of peat degradation. δ13C did not vary with water table drawdown, depth, or decomposition process. These insights into the variation of soil physicochemical characteristics with depths and water table may help elucidate the processes behind peatland degradation.

Formulating Popular Policies for Peat Restoration Based on Livelihoods of Local Farmers

Important peatland issues developed were how to restore peatlands and followed by increasing rural livelihoods. This research aimed to analyze how peatlands can be utilized to alleviate poverty? and how to integrate peatland restoration with poverty alleviation. This research has been conducted in peatlands of OKI district, South Sumatra Indonesia in 2017. Data about bio geophysical aspects of peatlands, social, economic and political institutions of farmers were surveyed in the fields, performed in qualitative and quantitative approach, and analyzed in forms of tables and descriptions. Important themes have been discussed in formulating popular policies for peat restoration based on livelihoods of local farmers, among others poor groups; characteristics of farmers from the socio-political aspect; concept of peatland restoration and other lessons-learnt; compatibility of peat-based poverty alleviation; and need to improve policy making. The chronic poor sites tend to overlap with peatland degradation; it is more important to cultivate peatlands to prevent farmers from falling into deeper poverty than to reduce farmers out of poverty, and the intrinsic quality of peatlands and their contents tends to conflict with poverty alleviation goals, but there are some possible trends to minimize peatlands degradation and to alleviate poverty simultaneously. The best approach is to apply the 'win-lose' or 'lose-win' approach, even though we are not able to avoid peatland degradation at a zero level, but at least it can be inhibited. Cooperation between investors and farmers in managing peatlands is needed, so that the peatland resources are not completely degraded.