Degradation Of Mangrove Forests Research Articles

Analysis Of Mangrove Land Cover In The Sawo Marine Conservation Area, North Nias District

Sawo sub-district of North Nias Regency has a mangrove ecosystem that has been designated as a Regional Marine Conservation Area (KKLD) with an area of 29,230.85 ha. The 2005 earthquake and tsunami are reported to have caused damage to mangrove ecosystems due to rising land levels. The increase in land surface has resulted in the destruction of mangroves in this area. This has an impact on the sustainability of the mangrove ecosystem in this region and is important to study. The purpose of this study is to analyze changes in mangrove land cover after the tsunami in 2006 to 2022 and to analyze the impact of changes in mangrove land cover. The results found that mangrove land cover continues to experience a reduction in area, in 2006 an area of 139.78 ha and continues to decline until the remaining 70.87 ha in 2022. This is due to the increasing population growth that causes mangrove forest degradation and land conversion into agricultural land, plantations and infrastructure. The increase in population is a driving force, land clearing for settlements and plantations is a pressure factor (Pressures), land use change is a factor of existing conditions (State), reduced mangrove land area is part of the impact (Impact) and coastal spatial planning, counseling to reforestation is a response (Response). Land conversion to other uses is a contributing factor to the continued loss of mangrove land in this area.Keywords: Mangrove, Land cover, GIS, DPSIR

Utilisation of Sentinel-2A Imagery for Estimation of Mangrove Carbon Stock in Mamminasata Area, South Sulawesi

Population growth and land conversion have led to the degradation of mangrove forests on the southern coast of South Sulawesi, especially the Mamminasata area. Reduced mangroves increase carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, data on the potential carbon absorption of mangroves is still lacking. To overcome this, remote sensing is used to estimate carbon reserves. This reseach utilises Sentinel-2A imagery to estimate mangrove carbon stocks in Mamminasata. The image processing process includes radiometric correction, atmospheric correction, image classification, and extraction of NDVI values. The NDVI value is used to classify the density of mangroves into sparse, medium, and dense, covering 1,244.75 hectares. Field data collection was carried out through a survey of forest stand measurements. The results of NDVI transformation show a value range of 0.2 to 0.8 for mangrove objects in the Mamminasata area. The NDVI data on the analysed images were then made into three density classes. The rare density class has a carbon value of 3.56 – 21.16 Ton C/ha, the medium density class is between 21.17 – 31.49 Ton C/ha, and the dense density class is between 31.50 – 39.18 Ton C/ha. Regression analysis shows a strong correlation between NDVI and carbon stock (R² = 0.7134). This study confirms the effectiveness of remote sensing in environmental monitoring and mangrove conservation. These findings support conservation efforts and sustainable management policies by highlighting areas with high carbon sequestration potential.

Zoning Patterns of Mangrove Forests in Lampung Timur Regency

Mangrove forests form due to vegetative distribution along coastlines with varying growing conditions concerning substrate, freshwater intake, and oceanic currents. These disparities facilitate zoning and subsequent distinct growth patterns. The research objective was to identify the zoning structure of mangrove ecosystems in Lampung Timur Regency, Lampung Province, Indonesia. The degradation of mangrove forests in Lampung Timur Regency was thought to be caused by anthropogenic activities and inappropriate zoning patterns. Concerning data collection, the cluster sampling method was employed, which was selected based on the preliminary study's findings that the mangrove status in the study area exhibits a variety of substrates, freshwater supply, and strong ocean currents. There are five clusters on the study site, with each cluster containing sample plots measuring 10m x 10m. The sampling method employed a striped path starting from the outermost part of the mangrove ecosystem, with the number of plots in each cluster dependent on the thickness of the mangrove vegetation. A regional map and GIS applications were used for mangrove zonation mapping, and the factors influencing the zonation of mangrove ecosystems were analyzed descriptively. The research findings demonstrated that the mangrove ecosystem located in Lampung Timur comprises three distinct zones: the outer zone, the middle zone, and the terrestrial zone

Monitoring Mangrove Forest Degradation in Mangrove Nature Tourism Park Angke Kapuk, North Jakarta, Indonesia Using NDVI

Mangrove forests in Angke Kapuk, North Jakarta, are integral parts of the coastal ecosystem and play important roles in supporting environmental sustainability. One component of the Angke Kapuk Mangrove Forest is the Mangrove Nature Tourism Park (MNTP), Angke Kapuk, covering an area of 99.82 hectares. This study aims to analyze mangrove forest degradation in Angke Kapuk Nature Reserve using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI, which allows for mapping mangrove vegetation density and monitoring changes in the vegetation density over time. The objective of this study is to determine the degradation of mangrove forests from 2018 to 2023 using the NDVI derived from Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 satellite imagery. The findings of this study showed a change of 13.16 hectares in forested areas between 2018 and 2023, suggesting forest degradation. Accuracy assessment resulted in %80 overall accuracy with a kappa coefficient of % 76.2. Based on the literature, our results are similar to the acceptable level of accuracy, which is considered to be above %80. Monitoring mangrove forest areas can serve as a preventive measure to address the issue of mangrove forest degradation. These results underscore the necessity of sustainable forestry monitoring efforts in the MNTP area, as it contributes significantly to providing ecosystem services and maintaining environmental sustainability.

Study of population distribution and benefits of Nipah (Nypa fruticans)

The invasion of nipah (Nypa fructicans) occurred in the Air Telang Protected Forest (ATPF), Indonesia, as a result of mangrove forest degradation caused by anthropogenic activities in the area. This research aims to analyze the distribution of nipah populations in the ATPF and at the same time describe the benefits and potential of nipah both in the ATPF and in various regions in the world. The data collected in this research consists of two types, namely primary data and secondary data. Primary data was obtained through field surveys in the ATPF area, while secondary data was obtained through literature studies of relevant research results. Nipah populations can be widely distributed in degraded mangrove forest ecosystems and invade areas outside their natural habitat because they have high adaptability to the environment, high seed productivity and effective and adaptive seed distribution. Even though the spread of nipah in the ecosystem can hinder the succession of mangrove forests, it turns out that nipah has great benefits for the community and contains important compounds that are useful for making foods, drinks and medicine..

Gen Z: Peduli Terhadap Ekosistem Mangrove di Kelurahan Lalowaru, Konawe selatan

Background: The problem of mangrove forest degradation in coastal areas is caused by various factors, including industrial activities, household activities, cultivation activities and land clearing for settlements. Previous research has stated that there needs to be concern from various parties so that mangrove forests in coastal areas are maintained. Until now, mangrove forest destruction, both natural and deliberate, is still quite high, making it a problem in most coastal areas. Situation Analysis: school students as the younger generation play an important role in disseminating knowledge about the importance of maintaining and preserving mangrove forests in coastal areas. Through this activity, it is hoped that a high level of love and concern for the environment can be created for school students in coastal areas. Approach Method: The approach stages carried out in this program consist of educating school students regarding the importance of maintaining mangrove forests in coastal areas. Results and Conclusions: When providing education to school students, they are first given an understanding of the importance of mangrove forests for the environment. After being given education and then practicing planting mangrove seeds directly, school students became enthusiastic about taking part in maintaining the mangrove ecosystem. Based on this, it can be concluded that education for the younger generation regarding the important function of mangrove forests needs to continue to be encouraged so that the younger generation is also involved in preserving coastal areas.

Local People's Attitudes Towards Mangrove Conservation Effort in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Background: Human activity has accelerated the degradation of mangrove forests in Southeast Asia, especially in Indonesia. The Government has encouraged conservation efforts towards the woods to cope with this problem. Participation of local people is considered necessary nowadays to understand their attitudes related to such issues. Studies are limited in Indonesia's context, especially in East Kalimantan province's case concerned with a heterogeneous community regarding socioeconomic and limited access to conservation activities. Aim: This study aims to understand how local people could have different participation and willingness to participate (WTP) as the embodiment of their attitudes towards conservation activities and how their reasons are associated with the heterogenous characteristics by taking the location of Margomulyo Mangrove Conservation Area (MMCA) Balikpapan, East Kalimantan. Method: This study uses a qualitative approach combining interviews, observation, and document collection methods. The data is analyzed inductively using coding stages from Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña. Findings: This study reveals positive attitudes by different participation from local people that presented as a heterogenous community. Reasons for involvement vary and are associated mainly with occupation, experiences in mangrove conservation activities that gave them access to the projects, and good networks among local people. Meanwhile, an excellent social relationship contributes to the WTP of local people in the projects with different preference types of activities. This study's findings suggest equitable management for local people by the Government by considering adequate social capital that already exists in the community.

Conservation-based mangrove forest management strategy in wosi Manokwari west Papua Indonesia

Degradation of mangrove forests in the Wosi region has negative consequences, including the loss of mangrove forest land and the disruption of marine biota and natural resources in the Doreri Bay region of Manokwari, West Papua. Sustainable tourism that does not harm the environment and ensures a reasonable standard of living for the local people can only be achieved if Mangrove Forest Areas are developed with an ecologically responsible philosophy. The researchers in this study set out to learn more about community involvement in mangrove area management programs and to develop a strategy for the care of tourist attraction artifacts in the mangrove area of Wosi, Manokwari district. Observational methods and case studies formed the basis of the investigation. The goal of this method of observation is to use a quantitatively descriptive approach to examine the interplay between economic, social, and population policies and environmental factors like the Wosi Mangrove Forest. Experts provide their insights on how Indonesia's Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) has implemented its protected forest rules. But this is not the case for the people who make their homes in the Wosi Mangrove Forest. Both the data on sustainable mangrove forest management policies and the policies themselves were subjected to a SWOT analysis. The SWOT analysis confirmed the importance of community participation in mangrove forest management for the promotion of educational tourism. Karang Taruna Caring for Waste Manokwari is in charge of organizing this educational tour. The Wosi mangrove forest region is hoped to benefit from this method.

Carbon Content Potential of Mangrove Species in Gili Sulat, East Lombok

Mangroves are a unique ecosystem because they live in two transition zones, always green, and tolerant of salt. However, globally it is under serious threat due to environmental issues that are closely related to deforestation and degradation of mangrove forests. Mangrove ecological services as a carbon sink can help mitigate climate change and global warming. This capability has not been utilized optimally, especially in NTB, specifically Gili Sulat, which has natural mangrove forests. Therefore, this research aims to identify, explain, describe, and understand the carbon content of trees in mangrove species in Gili Sulat. The station determination method is done by purposive sampling. The sampling technique for carbon content was carried out using a non-destructive method, namely measuring the diameter at breast height and tree height. The results of the study found nine mangrove species in the tree category where the highest potential carbon content was found in the species Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, namely 0.285 ton C/ha and 183.255 ton C/643 ha, and the lowest was found in the species Exoecaria agallocha, namely 0.010 ton C/ha and 6.430 ton C/643 Ha. Meanwhile, the total biomass, carbon content, and carbon dioxide absorption of mangrove species in Gili Sulat were 661.004 tonnes/643ha, 331.145 tonnes C/643 ha, and 1212.698 tonnes CO2/643 ha respectively. The high potential carbon content of mangrove tree species in Gili Sulat proves that the ecological services of Gili Sulat's mangroves have a positive impact on climate change mitigation and global warming.

The potential feasibility of mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) silvofishery aquaculture

Abstract. Rinaldy H, Iskandar J, Cahyandito MF, Sunardi. 2023. The potential feasibility of mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) silvofishery aquaculture. Biodiversitas 24: 3344-3354. The degradation of mangrove forests in Indonesia has reached more than 50%, and increases continuously. Sei Beduk is one of the Sub-districts in Batam City, Indonesia, that has mangrove forest damage where the density of trees per hectare is below the normal value of <1,000 trees per hectare. One approach that can be applied to overcome forest degradation is fisheries management with an ecosystem approach. This study aims to determine the suitable location for cultivating mangrove crab (Scylla serrata Forskål, 1775) and analyze the potential feasibility of S. serrata silvofishery cultivation using a quantitative approach with the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM) method. According to Slovin's calculations, a minimum of 100 people samples were obtained, and 147 samples were obtained at the time of data collection. The results showed that the location of the Perahu was highly potential for silvofishery S. serrata cultivation. The overall potential feasibility of silvofishery S. serrata cultivation in Sei Beduk, Batam was 53.10% or moderate/relatively good. The potential feasibility of S. serrata cultivation management planning is sufficient to support the sustainability of mangrove forests and allow it to be implemented. The feasible plan for managing S. serrata cultivation is to preserve ecology while improving and considering aquaculture policies and regulations. The relatively appropriate mangrove silvofishery cultivation in Sei Beduk, Batam, can provide community solutions to carry out silvofishery cultivation as a measure to overcome the problem of mangrove forest degradation, particularly in Sei Beduk, Batam.

Restorasi dan Revitalisasi Pasca Degradasi Ekosistem Mangrove di Paluh Merbau Kabupaten Deli Serdang

This study aims to determine restoration and revitalization efforts after the degradation of mangrove ecosystems in Paluh Merbau. The observation method is direct observation of the mangrove area. The results show that the mangrove ecosystem is fragile and sensitive to change. Mangrove forest degradation in Paluh Merbau has been very severe; much mangrove vegetation has fallen due to being unable to withstand abrasion and sedimentation in coastal waters and continues to experience area shrinkage. Restoration and revitalization of the Paluh Merbau mangrove ecosystem were carried out by naming Rhizapora apiculata, Rhizapora stylosa, and Avicennia marina.

Vegetation Analysis as Indicator of Mangrove Degradation Level in Keboromo Village, Tayu

Mangrove degradation is one of the most common issues in the coastal areas of Java, which can cause ecological impacts and even disadvantage for local community. The mangrove forest degradation can be identified based on the vegetation analysis results, which could potentially contribute to the mangrove ecosystem management and rehabilitation programs in the coastal areas. Mangroves in Keboromo Village was the rehabilitation and cultivation area, but often get damaged by ocean waves. This study aims to determine the ecological and vegetation conditions of mangrove ecosystems consist of species composition, density, canopy cover, tree height, and environmental parameters were held in February 2023. The method used was direct observation using transect quadrants of 10x10 m2. The average mangrove density of all observation stations was 3.425 individuals/ha for the tree category, 575 individuals/ha for the sapling category, and 250 individuals/ha for the seedling category. The average percentage of canopy cover was 78.41%. The average height of mangrove trees at all stations is 4.15 m. The environmental parameters were still compatible with the water quality standard for biota and mangrove life. The mangrove forest degradation level based on standard criteria and guidelines for determining mangrove degradation is categorized as low, indicated by mangrove density >1500 individuals/ha and canopy cover >75%. Poor conditions were measured for sapling and seedling densities, which may be caused by environmental factors unsupportive for mangrove regeneration. Based on the results of mangrove vegetation analysis in Keboromo Village, it can state the mangrove ecosystem condition is good. However, management programs are needed to keep the mangroves sustainable.

Identification of mangrove tree species using deep learning method

Artificial intelligence can help classify plants to make identification easier for everyone. This technology can be used to classify mangrove trees. The degradation of mangrove forests has resulted in a 20% loss of biodiversity, an 80% loss of microbial decomposers, reduced C-organic soil, and fish spawning grounds, resulting in estimated losses in the ecological and economic fields for up to IDR 39 billion. The identification of different mangrove species is the first step in ensuring the preservation of these forests. Therefore, this research aimed to develop algorithms and a convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture to classify mangrove tree species with the highest possible accuracy using Python software. The architecture selection for this model includes a batch size of 32, an input image size of 128x128 pixels, four classes, four convolution layers, four rectified linear unit (ReLU) layers, 2x2 max-pooling, and two fully connected layers (FCL). The finding showed that the resulting accuracy from the test was 97.50%, while the validation test was 81.25%, applied to four types of mangrove leaves, including <em>Avicenia marina, Avicenia officialis, Rizophora apiculata, </em>and <em>Soneratia caseolaris</em>.

Integrated mangrove aquaculture: The sustainable choice for mangroves and aquaculture?

Aquaculture production is projected to surpass wild-capture fisheries as the primary source of aquatic animal protein in the near future. Farmed shrimp—which are amongst the most valuable aquaculture commodities—are raised predominantly in Southeast Asia and Latin America in a variety of production systems, spanning from extensive to intensive farming. Shrimp aquaculture has been widely criticized for causing mangrove forest degradation and loss, leading to calls for more sustainable aquaculture approaches that protect mangroves. Here we examine an approach promoted as more sustainable—integrated mangrove aquaculture (IMA): a type of farming where mangroves are planted in or alongside shrimp ponds. We argue that mangroves within IMA shrimp systems provide biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services that are, at best, compromised, especially when compared to intact mangrove forests. Given the rapid adoption of IMA approaches, including advocacy for uptake from many governments and non-governmental organizations, there is an urgent need to ensure that these and other aquaculture systems do not result in any conversion of intact mangrove ecosystems into aquaculture ponds, and to identify any benefits (or lack thereof) provided by IMA systems. The increasing adoption of IMA may offer false promises for managing trade-offs between increasing aquaculture productivity and mangrove forest conservation.

Mangrove forest degradation and shoreline erosion in the Mekong delta: a case study from Ben Tre province

Viet Nam’s coastline faces many natural and human-induced threats, such as erosion, floods, sea-level changes, pollution and saltwater intrusion. Low lying deltas, such as the Mekong Delta and the Red River Delta of Viet Nam are frequently subjected to such threats. The present study investigated the degradation of mangrove forests and changes in shoreline along the coast of Ben Tre. For this purpose, we used spectral indices, such as the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) for mapping mangrove vegetation and the normalized difference water index (NDWI) for estimating shoreline changes. The possibilities, advantages and limitations of coastal vegetation, such as mangroves, casuarina and pandanus, as a bioshield for shoreline protection in Ben Tre coast of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) were also discussed. The results show that coastal areas covered with newly planted mangroves showed reduced or no erosion. Currently, several hard structures have been used for short-term protection from coastal erosion in Ben Tre. For long-term coastal protection, the present study suggested an ecosystem-based adaptation using bioshield for Ben Tre coast. A combination of hard structures reinforced with bioshield is recommended for long-term and sustainable coastal protection in Ben Tre.

Mapping mangrove sustainability in the face of sea level rise and land use: A case study on Leizhou Peninsula, China

Habitat loss and degradation of mangrove forests can be caused by both sea level rise (SLR) and unsustainable land practices. Current long-term change projections are often based on changes to mangrove extent; however, this may overlook fragmentation and the associated habitat resilience decline and therefore fail to adequately reveal the risks to mangrove habitats. A mangrove sustainability index (MSI) was proposed in this study to assess the impact of SLR and land use on mangrove habitats. The index consists of four components: habitat area change, habitat quality, landscape pattern, and protection ratio. Ecological models and landscape models were combined to calculate the MSI. Considering the SLR under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 and land use strategies, four scenarios were set with prediction periods of base year (2020) to 2050 and 2100. The Leizhou Peninsula, China was used as the case study. The results showed that dual stressors would reduce the extent of mangroves by 16.6%–56.2%. Habitat quality was sensitive to land use change but was not affected by SLR. Landscape pattern and protection ratio were influenced by SLR but less effected by land use. In all scenarios, mangroves tended to migrate out of the protected areas, with protection ratio decreasing from 37% to 16.9%–29.9%. Newly expanding habitats may suffer from patch fragmentation and low connectivity. Unsustainable mangrove distribution sites on Leizhou Peninsula were identified as hotspots for management. Projections under different scenarios showed that some unsustainable sites could be reversed to sustainable sites through improvements in land use policies. The proposed approach could provide essential tools for the formulation of mangrove conservation and restoration strategies adapted to climate change.

Fish use of restored mangroves matches that in natural mangroves regardless of forest age

The loss and degradation of mangrove forests have triggered global restoration efforts to support biodiversity and ecosystem services, including fish stock enhancement. As mangrove restoration accelerates, it is important to evaluate outcomes for species that play functional roles in ecosystems and support services, yet this remains a clear knowledge gap. There is remarkably little information, for example, about how fish use of mangroves varies as restored vegetation matures, hampering efforts to include fisheries benefits in natural capital assessments of restoration. We used unbaited underwater cameras within two distinct zones of mangrove forests—fringe and interior—at five pairs of restored‐natural mangrove sites of increasing age from restoration in southeast Queensland, Australia. We used deep learning to automatically extract data for the four most common species: yellowfin bream (Acanthopagrus australis), sea mullet (Mugil cephalus), common toadfish (Tetractenos hamiltoni), and common silverbiddy (Gerres subfasciatus). The abundance of these species varied among sites and zones, but was equal or greater in restored sites compared to paired natural sites. Despite younger restored sites having dramatically lower structural vegetation complexity, abundances did not increase with restoration site maturity. Furthermore, while yellowfin bream and sea mullet were more abundant in the fringe zone, we observed similarities in how fish used fringe and interior zones across all sites. Our paired, space‐for‐time design provides a powerful test of restoration outcomes for fish, highlighting that even newly restored sites with immature vegetation are readily utilized by key fish species.

Empowerment of Abandoned Ponds for Sustainable Mangrove Rehabilitation Activities in Percut Sei Tuan, Deli Serdang, Indonesia

Mangrove ecosystems provide important functions for ecosystem service. However, the degradation of mangrove forests, especially conversion to aquaculture ponds is a driver for deforestation. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the mangrove vegetation and duration of inundation in ponds before and after rehabilitation activities were conducted on abandoned ponds. In this analysis, we used the census method to collect structural data, the Important Value Index (IVI), composition and structure, and the diversity index. To determine the duration of inundation at the observation sites in a pond in Tanjung Rejo, Percut Sei Tuan village, we deployed one water logger and two Mini Buoys at ponds. At the observation site, eight pure mangrove species have been founded, namely Avicennia alba, A. marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. stylosa, and Nypa fruticans. The main species was A. marina which is a total of 756 idv/ha at the seedling stage 52.81 idv/ha at the sapling stage, and 268.09 idv/ha at the tree level. The highest IVI has founded in seedlings, saplings, and trees at A. marina, which was 99.30%. 80.41% and 94.49%, respectively. Rehabilitated Avicennia spp that grew only 2.4% from 2000 seedlings. The low growth of seedlings was influenced by the pond condition which was always in a state of flooding. The current study provides important information that in carrying out planting or rehabilitation activities it is necessary to determine which inundation rotation should be a priority considered.

Maintaining Carbon Storage Does Not Reduce Fish Production from Mangrove-Fish Pond System: A Case Study in Coastal Area of Subang District, West Java, Indonesia

Deforestation and degradation of mangrove forests can be categorized as key environmental problems in Indonesia. These problems are majorly driven by overexploitation and the conversion of mangroves into brackish water aquaculture areas. One of the most common aquaculture systems traditionally developed in the coastal areas is the mangrove-fish pond system that combines fish production with existing trees. This study aims to analyze the environmental and economic aspects of mangrove-fish pond aquaculture in different levels of mangrove cover in the coastal area of Subang District, West Java, Indonesia. The spatial analysis method was used to analyze mangrove distribution and identify the current coverage in the aquaculture area. The economic aspect was analyzed, based on the costs and revenue from fish production, while the environmental aspect was represented by carbon storage, which is among the crucial mangrove ecosystem services. This study estimated carbon storage in the four-carbon pools: above- and below-ground biomass, deadwood, and litterfall. Based on the combination of visual interpretation of Sentinel 2A satellite images and field observations, approximately 667 ha of mangrove-fish pond was identified. This study found that there were no significant differences in fish production and net income from mangrove-fish pond aquaculture at various levels of mangrove cover. Meanwhile, the ponds with high mangrove cover stored higher carbon than those with medium and low mangrove covers. This indicates that maintaining carbon storage does not reduce fish production from mangrove-fish pond aquaculture.

Factors involved in the degradation of mangrove forests in Iran: A mixed study for the management of this ecosystem

In Iran, mangroves are located in the south of the country, where they fulfill essential ecosystem functions, but some parts of them have been destroyed for various reasons in recent years so that it seems necessary to have a management plan consistent with the conservation of this ecosystem. But, it needs knowledge of the trend of and reasons for the degradation of these forests. So, the primary idea of this research was to discover the factors involved in the degradation of these forests and how to manage them. So, the research first used the remote sensing technique to determine the rate of their degradation over the last 20 years. Then, using the Delphi technique, 45 factors were identified for the degradation of these forests and they were classified into five categories including climatic and environmental, anthropogenic, socioeconomic, psychological, and policymaking and legal. Finally, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was used to rank these factors within two management paradigms of remediability and preventability so that the ecosystem can be soundly managed by classifying these factors. Overall, the results can provide policymakers with new insights into forest management and the policies presented here can contribute to the sustainability of this ecosystem.