DEFORM-3D Simulation Research Articles

Study on Deformation Behavior and Mechanical Properties of 42CrMo High-Strength Steel with Multi-Station Warm Upsetting

In order to find out the deformation behavior and mechanical properties of 42CrMo steel under warm upsetting conditions, the Gleeble-3500 thermal simulation testing machine was used to carry out a warm upsetting physical simulation experiment on 42CrMo steel. By controlling deformation temperature, strain rate, and constant temperature deformation pass, the microstructure evolution rule under different warm upsetting conditions was analyzed, and its hardness value was measured. Then, the simulation experiment is carried out based on the Deform-3D finite element platform. The results show that, with the increase in deformation temperature, 42CrMo steel has a temperature rise softening effect, which significantly reduces the peak value of rheological stress. At 650 °C, the maximum peak value of rheological stress is only 45.3% of that of cold upsetting deformation at room temperature, and the stress-strain curve tends to be gentle at the plastic deformation stage, which is the most suitable temperature for warm upsetting deformation. The maximum peak flow stress of 42CrMo steel increases with the increase in strain rate, but the number of deformation channels has little influence on the stress-strain curve. The warm, upsetting deformation can refine the internal grain structure significantly, and the grain refinement mechanism is mechanical crushing. When the temperature is slightly higher, the broken grain will recover, and the grain size will grow. During the process of warm upsetting, the strain rate has a great influence on the microhardness of the sample. The deformation pass has little influence on the hardness, and the hardness increases slightly with the increase in the deformation pass. Through the Deform-3D simulation, the correlation coefficient R and the average absolute relative error (AARE) between the simulation value and the experimental value were calculated, and the correlation coefficient R-value was 0.9948, and the average absolute relative error (AARE) was 2.05%, indicating that the simulation can accurately reflect the relationship between displacement and applied load.

On the Uniaxial Compression Testing of Metallic Alloys at High Strain Rates: An Assessment of DEFORM-3D Simulation

In this study, the challenges associated with conducting high-strain rate uniaxial compression testing experiments are highlighted. To address these challenges, DEFORM-3D simulation was explored as an alternative approach to experimental testing. Previously established constitutive constants obtained from experimental low strain rate uniaxial compression testing of three titanium (α + β) alloys were used as input codes. From the results, the peak flow stress values obtained from the DEFORM-3D simulation were close to the values obtained experimentally at low (0.1 to 10/s) and high (20 and 50/s) strain rates. For the alloys considered in this study, a discrepancy of ~20% in the peak flow stress was obtained at a 10/s strain rate. The difference in peak flow stress for strain rates less than 10/s or higher (20 and 50/s) is within acceptable limits. The limitations of using DEFORM-3D simulations for high strain rate uniaxial compression testing are highlighted.

Thixoforming-forging compound forming technology for 6A02 Al bracket-shape component

Conventional thixoforming technology had advantages of casting and forging, but low plastic deformation degree and existence of liquid phase lowered the mechanical property. In this work, 6A02 bracket-shape component was firstly manufactured by the efficient thixoforming-forging compound forming technology and bimodal semisolid billet. Bimodal semisolid feedstock was beneficial for both filling ability and mechanical strength due to intragranular dislocation and elongated grain shape. Firstly, a Deform-3D simulation of compound forming was established by controlling temperature field distribution. Then the effects of billet shapes, billet temperatures, soaking times, mold temperatures and dwell times on microstructures and mechanical properties were investigated. Though the mechanical strength and ductility at the shoulder were elevated by larger plastic deformation in the integrated forming process, they were still lower than those at side wall and bottom part in virtue of liquid segregation. Besides, the largest yield strength σy, tensile strength σmax and elongation δ of compound-formed 6A02 components were even 16.8%, 25.8%, and 77.6% higher than σy, σmax and δ of 6A02 hot-extruded bar, respectively. Finally, the deformation behavior and strengthening mechanism of compound forming technology were discussed deeply. Particularly, except liquid fraction, deformation behavior was relevant with grain size and morphology. For rounder and smaller grains, grain boundary sliding was dominant. But slip deformation was predominant for large-deformed grains. Subsequently, a new dynamic recrystallization (DRX) mechanism was proposed and only continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) could make the wet grain boundary serrated. A quantitative insight into strengthening mechanism indicated that solid solution strengthening and dislocation strengthening were dominant. This study provided a theoretical guidance and experimental support for the efficient application and forming control of 6A02 alloy in compound forming area.

Numerical Modelling, Simulation, and Analysis of the End-Milling Process Using DEFORM-3D with Experimental Validation

In this present work, finite element analysis (FEA)-based simulation of end-milling of AISI1045 steel using tungsten carbide tool was performed using DEFORM-3D simulation software. Usui tool wear model, Johnson-cook material model and adaptive remeshing are considered during machining simulation. The impact of machining variables rate of feed, tool speed, and depth of cut was investigated, and the best integration of variables was distinguished for lower cutting temperature, principal stress, cutting forces, effective stresses, tool wear, and effective strain. The obtained results were correlated using experimentation in a vertical machining center attached with a Kistler tool dynamometer with data acquisition setup for capturing the cutting forces, and an infrared (IR) thermometer was used to measure the cutting temperature, and a comparison was done. Results showed a good correlation. There is a relationship between experimental and numerical results, and simulation findings can be utilised for interpreting the influence of machining parameters.

DEFORM 3D Simulations and Taguchi Analysis in Dry Turning of 35CND16 Steel

Steel (35CND16) has excellent strength with good hardenability and dimensional stability, and it could be widely used in engineering, mining, and tooling. The present study focused on minimizing cutting forces, flank wear, and temperature generation in the machining zone. The machining process factors include cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. DEFORM 3D simulation outputs closely agreed with the experimental results. The predictive model developed by DEFORM 3D can predict the cutting force and temperature before the actual experiment; therefore, the machining cost can be avoided, which would incur due to improper selection of machining factors. Further, the machining factors were optimized based on ANOVA and regression analysis. Flank wear was increased at high level factors of speed and feed; however, flank wear tends to reduce at the middle level of depth of cut. The average percentage error for cutting force and temperature generation between experimental values and simulated values for force and temperature at machining zone was found to be 2.21% and 1.22%, respectively.

Simulations and Experiments on the Micro-Milling Process of a Thin-Walled Structure of Al6061-T6.

Aluminum alloy (Al6061-T6) is an alloy with strong corrosion resistance, excellent disassembly, and moderate strength, which is widely used in the fields of construction, automobile, shipping, and aerospace manufacturing. Researching on the influence of machining precision and surface quality on the micro-milling process of thin-walled structures of Al6061 is highly significant. Combined with the two simulations (DEFORM-3D simulation and interactive finite element numerical simulation (FEM)) and milling experimental verification, the deformations, errors, and surface quality of milling thin-walled Al6061 were analyzed. The simulations and experimental results show that the deformation of milling a micro thin-walled structure was caused by the vertical stiffness of the thin-walled structure and the cutting force. Surface micromorphology further characterized and showed a poorer quality area, top burr, and concave defects, which directly affect machining quality. It is necessary to improve the surface quality, reduce the surface defects, and increase the stiffness at the top of thin-walled structures in future work.

Deform 3D Simulation and Experimental Investigation of Fixtures with Support Heads

Thin-walled aluminium parts are employed in a variety of industries, including construction and aerospace. If they are treated to a greater quantity of milling, they are more resistant to deformation. As a result, the stability of the work parts degrades, and the surface roughness increases as a result of this factor. This work proposes the use of a well-designed fixture with support heads to lessen the deformation produced by square thin-walled aluminium plate milling. The suggested fixture system's support heads are comprised of high-carbon steel. The milling experiment is carried out in a CNC Machining centre under machining settings similar to DEFORM 3D-Simulation. The experimental results are validated by measuring surface roughness with the SURFTEST SJ-210 portable Surface Roughness tester in two scenarios: without and with fixtures used during the milling operation. As a result of employing this fixture with support heads to reduce deformation, surface roughness values are reduced by a minimum of 3% to a maximum of 19%. As a result, it has been demonstrated that the proposed fixture with support head may be used to reduce distortion in thin-walled aluminium plates

Importance of Finite Element Analysis for Verification of Technological Parameters of Seamless Tubes Production Obtained by Experiment

Experimental research on the process of cold tubes drawing was performed in order to obtain important information about the behaviour of the tube material in the drawing tool during the drawing to the required outer diameter of Ø12 mm. The DEFORM-3D simulation software was an important tool for verifying the plastic flow of material in the drawing tool (i.e. drawing die), as well as for optimizing the technological parameters of cold tubes drawing. In the finite element (FE) analysis, emphasis was placed on determining the influence of tool geometry, strain degree, drawing speed and friction on the size of the drawing force and the quality of production of drawn tubes. The paper points out the importance of simulation software for common comparison of results obtained from laboratory experiment and FE analysis of the process of tubes drawing. By comparing the results, the reliability of the used simulation software was proved, as the results were identical for all monitored technological parameters. Computer simulation brings valuable knowledge that is important for the correct design of the drawing tool as well as for the technology of production of tubes with precise dimensions.

Microstructure Evolution of 7075 Aluminum Alloy by Rotary.

This study proposed a rotary back extrusion (RBE) process for an open punch, which is used to produce high-performance 7075 aluminum alloy cup-shaped piece. The RBE experiment was carried out on the Gleeble-3500 testing machine at 400 °C and compared with the conventional back extrusion (CBE). The microstructure was analyzed by optical microscope, scanning electron microscope and DEFORM-3D simulation software. The results shown that compared with CBE, RBE can significantly increase the equivalent strain value and deformation uniformity of 7075 aluminum alloy cup-shape pieces. RBE deformation increases the accumulated strain of the piece, and the rotation of the die causes the piece to produce shear strain, which increases the overall strain of the cup-shape piece. The proportion of dynamic recrystallization increases, and the grain refinement was obvious. The micro-hardness value of the RBE sample is higher than that of the CBE sample, which could be the result of grain refinement strengthening. What is more, RBE and CBE have different metal flow laws.

The ultra-high temperature forging process based on DEFORM-3D simulation

The ultra-high temperature forging process based on DEFORM-3D simulation

AZ31 magnesium alloy tube manufactured by composite forming technology including extruded-shear and bending based on finite element numerical simulation and experiments

This paper presents a new forming technology for manufacturing the AZ31 magnesium alloy thin-wall tube. The direct extrusion process and continuous shearing-bending process are combined to produce thin-wall magnesium tube, abbreviated as “TESB” (tube extrusion-shearing-bending). The process has been studied based on the combination of experiments and numerical simulations, and the influences of temperatures, extrusion stresses, and friction factors on the forming process have been studied by Deform-3D simulation. And the mechanical properties and the grain size of the formed product have been tested. TESB technology has been proved to refine the grains of magnesium alloy tube effectively, and the mechanical property of the product can be improved. The better experimental extrusion conditions were also obtained by simulation, and the properties of the products under the condition of lubrication were better when the temperature was 400°C. Three-dimensional finite element modeling is used to investigate the plastic deformation behaviors of wrought magnesium alloy during TESB process. Numerical results indicate TES could increase the cumulative strains effectively by direct extrusion and additional shearings. Experiments show that microstructures of magnesium alloy fabricated by TESB process can be refined to 50% of the original grain size with more uniform distribution. TES process could improve hardness of magnesium alloy obviously by comparing with which fabricated by direct extrusion.

Finite element simulation of tool wear in machining of nickel-chromiumbased superalloy

The phenomenon of tool wear strongly affects the efficiency of machining and the quality of machined products. The experimental approach to investigate tool wear requires several time consuming tests. Finite Element Methods (FEM) can be utilized to predict tool wear and tool life as function of process parameters and tool geometry. The commercial software for Finite Element Analysis (FEA) are limited by the impossibility to update the geometry of the worn tool. This research utilizes a self-released subroutine in order to modify the tool geometry in DEFORM 3D simulations by considering the volume reduction of the tool. The model was validated with experimental data obtained by drilling tests on Inconel 718 using conventional metal working fluids (MWF). The correct profile of the simulated worn tool was individuated by comparing the prediction of the simulation with the real tool geometry. The FEM simulation allowed to predict how torque changes during the tool life. In a predictive maintenance perspective, the model can be implemented to optimize the tools replacement.

Severe plastic deformation of commercially pure aluminum using novel equal channel angular expansion extrusion with spherical cavity

Abstract Equal channel angular expansion extrusion with spherical cavity (ECAEE-SC) was introduced as a novel severe plastic deformation (SPD) technique, which is capable of imposing large plastic strain and intrinsic back-pressure on the processed billet. The plastic deformation behaviors of commercially pure aluminum during ECAEE-SC process were investigated using finite element analysis DEFORM-3D simulation software. The material flow, the load history, the distribution of effective strain and mean stress in the billet were analyzed in comparison with conventional equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) process. In addition, single-pass ECAEE-SC was experimentally conducted on commercially pure aluminum at room temperature for validation, and the evolution of microstructure and microhardness of as-processed material was discussed. It was shown that during the process, the material is in the ideal hydrostatic stress state and the load requirement for ECAEE-SC is much more than that for ECAE. After a single-pass ECAEE-SC, an average strain of 3.51 was accumulated in the billet with homogeneous distribution. Moreover, the microstructure was significantly refined and composed of equiaxed ultrafine grains with sub-micron size. Considerable improvement in the average microhardness of aluminum was also found, which was homogenized and increased from HV 36.61 to HV 70.20, denoting 91.75% improvement compared with that of the as-cast billet.

Prediction of Cutting Forces during End Milling using 3D FEM based Simulation Analysis

Material removal process for dies, moulds and additionally diverse aircraft parts can be made possible by the highspeed end milling operation. Devious cutting forces are created by the impact of various cutting parameters in course with high speed milling process. Due to this phenomenon the wear and chatter of tool can occur. Cutting force prediction is useful method to reduce the chatter occurrence during the machining of hardest materials. DEFORM 3D is an important simulation software which is used for the analysis of complicated metal removal processes. In this work, the tool insert was designed by Solid Works modelling software. The FEM simulation of high-speed end milling of Titanium-Vanadium based alloy was carried out in Deform 3D simulation software to obtain the cutting forces. The material behaviour was modelled with a classical constitutive material equation and was applied in the FEM code to predict the effective stress, strain, temperature and cutting forces towards the impact of cutting parameters. Analysis of variance is achieved to determine the impact of cutting forces with help of Taguchi method in Minitab-17. L16 orthogonal array was used to conduct the analysis of high speed end milling.

Forging optimisation process using numerical simulation and Taguchi method

This study reports on the optimisation of the forging process using Deform™ 3D simulation software and the Taguchi method. The forging simulation process was conducted on X20 steel used because of its application in boiler pipes in the fossil-fuel power plants. A three-level, three parameter Taguchi design of experiment for the Deform 3D simulations was used. The parameters considered for the simulations were cylinder (deformation) temperature, die speed and friction coefficient were studied. From the forging process, simulation results were analysed using Taguchi’s orthogonal array. Further, ANOVA analysis was carried out to determine the significance of the parameters to the forging responses (maximum tensile stress and forging force). Results of the statistical analysis showed that the optimal parameters for improved product quality were deformation temperature of 1000 °C, die speed of v 20 mm/s and friction coefficient of 0.2. A confirmatory simulation was carried out using the optimal parameters. The simulation results verified that the optimal parameters showed a lower maximum tensile stress to 252.5 ± 2.5 MPa at the lateral surface of the deformed sample compared to other investigated conditions.

A study of barreling and DEFORM 3D simulation in cold upsetting of bi-material

This paper presents the behavior of shape and radius of barrel after cold upsetting for bi-material Al7075 fitted with S15C by using DEFORM 3D simulation. The simulation billet composes of two parts; shell and core. The S15C is used for outer shell whereas the core is made of Al 7075. The study simulation found that the stress contribution, maximum load and deformed dimension are 0.182, 0.405 and 0.69 respectively. The barrel radiuses of the outer shell and the inner cores were calculated. They are found that all radiuses are relatively. The confirmation experiment test showed some different point shapes for inner core caused by friction coefficient effect. The details are illustrated.

FE based simulation and experimental validation of forces in dry turning of aluminium 7075

This work is mainly focused on validation of simulated cutting forces obtained from a finite element based Deform-3D software in dry turning of Aluminium 7075 alloy with the experimental results. Experimental runs are performed to investigate the effect of cutting parameters like speed, feed, and depth of cut on both the cutting and feed forces in turning of Al-7075, which is widely used in automobile components and aircraft structures. A multiple regression analysis, i.e., ANOVA is used to determine the correlation between the cutting parameters and the machining forces. This study establishes the relevance and suitability of Deform-3D simulation software to estimate the forces in turning process. Hence, the simulation-based approach can be used successfully to predict the performance characteristics of the machining process reducing the experimental efforts at the shop floor. Further, this work has revealed a scope to validate the other machining responses, i.e., the tool wear, chip morphology, and residual stresses, etc. in machining with Deform-3D and also to compare the obtained results with other finite element based software tools.

Finite-element simulation and validation of material flow in thermal drilling process

Galvanized steel is broadly employed in metal roofing, air conditioning duct, support beams, construction materials, and domestic appliances, etc. In conventional drilling method has limitations such as asymmetrical holes, as well as formation of crack inside the hole made in sheet metal. This problem was entirely exterminated in thermal drilling (TD) process. In the course of TD process, the high temperature was developed due to rotational and feed rate of thermal drill into the workpiece. Owing to this reason, the thermal drill pierces workpiece effortlessly. However, in this process, workpiece deformation is very high; therefore, finite-element simulation is used to study the material flow which is challenging in experimental method. According to finite-element method (FEM), the finite-element analysis of TD process was conducted by the DEFORM-3D simulation software. The aim of this study is to conduct an experimental investigation of TD process on galvanized steel (GS), and then, it is compared to numerical results obtained from the FEM. Between experimental and FEM simulation of TD process, a good relationship was found.

Effect of Brasssheathing on ECAP of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy by Deform-3D Simulation and Experimentalanalysis

The Deform-3D software was used to simulate and analyze the equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) of Ti-6Al-4V alloy with and without brass sheathing. The results show that the Ti-6Al-4V alloy samples with and without brass sheathing is both maintain a regular shape after ECAP. The effective strain of points on the cross section of sample with brass sheathing is smaller than that of sample without brass sheathing, but the extrusion load of sample with brass sheathing is smaller, and the difficulty of Ti-6Al-4V alloyin ECAP process was reduced. The experimental result also proves the feasibility of ECAP of Ti-6Al-4V alloy with brass sheathing, and the change of microstructure is accord with the deformation characteristic of ECAP.

LIMITING VALUE OF COCKROFT-LATHAM INTEGRAL FOR COMMERCIAL PLASTICINE

The paper presents the results of experimental and numerical research in the scope of commercial plasticine cracking. The purpose of the study was to determine the limit value of the Cockroft-Latham integral. The value of the integral was determined on the basis of the stretching test and computer simulations. Experimental studies utilized axially symmetrical samples made of commercial black and white wax based plasticine. Samples were cooled to 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 °C. After the completion of experimental studies, finite element numerical simulation was performed under the conditions of 3-dimensional state of deformation in DEFORM 3D simulation software. Based on the results of experimental and numerical studies, the Cockroft-Latham limit value was calculated.