Definitive Reading Research Articles

Information structure constraints and complex NP islands in Chinese

This paper presents an analysis of the complex NP island effects in Chinese. I follow Ginzburg & Sag (2000)'s analysis of in situ wh-interrogative construction and propose that feature percolation from the non-head clause daughter to the head daughter is required for a proper treatment of in situ wh-relative. A semantic analysis of the idiosyncrasy of weishenme 'why' reveals that a definite reading is forced for a wh-relative when weishenme stays in situ. This requirement causes feature percolation into relative head to fail. In this way I show that island effects in Chinese can be independently ruled out in the grammar as a case of contradiction.

E-type interpretation without E-type pronoun: how Peirce’s Graphs capture the uniqueness implication of donkey pronouns in discourse anaphora

In this essay, we propose that Peirce’s Existential Graphs can derive the desired uniqueness implication (or in a weaker claim, the definite description readings) of donkey pronouns in conjunctive discourse (A man walks in the park. He whistles), without postulating a separate category of E-type pronouns.

Venom proteomic and venomous glands transcriptomic analysis of the Egyptian scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus (Arachnida: Scorpionidae)

Proteomic analysis of the scorpion venom Scorpio maurus palmatus was performed using reverse-phase HPLC separation followed by mass spectrometry determination. Sixty five components were identified with molecular masses varying from 413 to 14,009 Da. The high percentage of peptides (41.5%) was from 3 to 5 KDa which may represent linear antimicrobial peptides and KScTxs. Also, 155 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were analyzed through construction the cDNA library prepared from a pair of venomous gland. About 77% of the ESTs correspond to toxin-like peptides and proteins with definite open reading frames. The cDNA sequencing results also show the presence of sequences whose putative products have sequence similarity with antimicrobial peptides (24%), insecticidal toxins, β-NaScTxs, κ-KScTxs, α-KScTxs, calcines and La1-like peptides. Also, we have obtained 23 atypical types of venom molecules not recorded in other scorpion species. Moreover, 9% of the total ESTs revealed significant similarities with proteins involved in the cellular processes of these scorpion venomous glands. This is the first set of molecular masses and transcripts described from this species, in which various venom molecules have been identified. They belong to either known or unassigned types of scorpion venom peptides and proteins, and provide valuable information for evolutionary analysis and venomics.

L2 acquisition of English present perfect interpretations

The present study investigates the role of first language (L1), in our case Cypriot Greek (CG) or Standard Greek (SG), in the second language (L2) acquisition of English present perfect in terms of form and meaning possibilities. With respect to native speakers of CG in particular, the primary goal is to determine whether transfer from the mother-tongue, in which present perfect has only a resultative reading and simple past a resultative, an existential or a definite reading, influences the acquisition of the English present perfect. It is assumed that L2 acquisition involves establishing connections between the semantic properties/overt markers for each reading and the English present perfect. Diagnostic tests proposed by Agouraki (2006) are employed in this study, based on the (in)compatibility of certain types of adverbial markers with the existential reading and the resultative reading, respectively, as well as on the distinct semantic properties of the two readings. Almost 400 participants took part in this research. The results show that there is a certain effect of L1 on the L2 acquisition of English present perfect by CG- and SG-speaking pupils, which is argued to be mainly due to the different patterns of meanings and forms in CG, SG and English.

From Talloires to Turin: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Declarations for Sustainability in Higher Education

Declarations for sustainability in higher education are often seen as a set of guiding principles that aid institutions of higher learning to incorporate the concept of sustainability into their various institutional dimensions. As the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development draws to a close and in the shadow of the 20th anniversary of the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, it seems appropriate to re-evaluate how these declarations have changed over the past two decades. In this study, we apply critical discourse analysis to examine how sustainability and the university are socio-politically constructed within these documents. Our analysis uncovers evidence of ideological assumptions and structures that are potentially misaligned with notions of sustainability often discussed in the Sustainability in Higher Education (SHE) literature. It is not the purpose of this study to provide a definitive reading of the documents, but rather to ply a novel critical lens to help elucidate how some taken-for-granted assumptions present in the declarations may work against their stated goals.

“A Man's Gotta Do What a Man's Gotta Do,” and Other Memorable Lines from “Philosophy and Film”

“A Man's Gotta Do What a Man's Gotta Do,” and Other Memorable Lines from “Philosophy and Film”

How Best to Define the Concept of Minimal Risk

Some studies necessary for improving pediatric care cannot directly benefit the children involved. For example, pharmacokinetic studies and studies into pathophysiological mechanisms often do not directly benefit their subjects. From an ethical point of view, involving children in such studies is complex: when considering the assumption that children cannot give informed consent, it is not easy to justify research risks that are faced solely for research purposes. Yet a total ban on such studies would seriously harm future sick children. As a compromise, the drafters of the US Federal Regulations and those of many other rules and regulations have chosen to allow review boards to approve research that does not directly benefit the children involved only when the risks are minimal or, under certain conditions, constitute a minor increase over minimal risk. 1 The concept of ‘‘minimal risk’’ was not drawn from common language. Thus, it is not clear how pediatric researchers, when designing studies, and review boards, when reviewing them, should understand and use this concept. How should one judge whether, for instance, a lumbar puncture, an anorectal manometry, or a bronchial provocation test can be considered minimal risk? An adequate definition of the concept seems vital, not only to support those involved in designing and reviewing pediatric studies but also to appropriately protect children from research risks and to let research that involves acceptable risk levels be approved. The approach in the United States was to define minimal risk in relation to other situations with risks that one may regard as minimal. The definition reads as follows: ‘‘the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research are not greater in and of themselves than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine physical or psychological examinations or tests.’’ 2 Thus, to determine whether certain research risks are minimal, researchers and review boards are supposed to comparethemwiththerisksofdailylifeandofroutineexaminations.

Expansion of Intronic GGCCTG Hexanucleotide Repeat in NOP56 Causes SCA36, a Type of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Accompanied by Motor Neuron Involvement

Autosomal-dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we performed genetic analysis of a unique form of SCA (SCA36) that is accompanied by motor neuron involvement. Genome-wide linkage analysis and subsequent fine mapping for three unrelated Japanese families in a cohort of SCA cases, in whom molecular diagnosis had never been performed, mapped the disease locus to the region of a 1.8 Mb stretch (LOD score of 4.60) on 20p13 (D20S906-D20S193) harboring 37 genes with definitive open reading frames. We sequenced 33 of these and observed a large expansion of an intronic GGCCTG hexanucleotide repeat in NOP56 and an unregistered missense variant (Phe265Leu) in C20orf194, but we found no mutations in PDYN and TGM6. The expansion showed complete segregation with the SCA phenotype in family studies, whereas Phe265Leu in C20orf194 did not. Screening of the expansions in the SCA cohort cases revealed four additional occurrences, but none were revealed in the cohort of 27 Alzheimer disease cases, 154 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases, or 300 controls. In total, nine unrelated cases were found in 251 cohort SCA patients (3.6%). A founder haplotype was confirmed in these cases. RNA foci formation was detected in lymphoblastoid cells from affected subjects by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Double staining and gel-shift assay showed that (GGCCUG)n binds the RNA-binding protein SRSF2 but that (CUG)(6) does not. In addition, transcription of MIR1292, a neighboring miRNA, was significantly decreased in lymphoblastoid cells of SCA patients. Our finding suggests that SCA36 is caused by hexanucleotide repeat expansions through RNA gain of function.

On Chinese Ordinal Constructions

A Chinese ordinal construction in the form [di+Num+Cl+N] is ambiguous between a definite construal and an indefinite quantity construal. The morpheme di heads a DP, and the two readings of the ordinal expression can be attributed to the lexical ambiguity of the morpheme di. On the one hand, if the event is realized once, and there is an ordered set of objects in a single space within which the context of a sentence can verify a presupposed referential existence for the denotation of ordinal phrases, di is a [+strong] determiner giving rise to a definite reading. On the other hand, if the event is carried out more than once, no such an ordered set of objects is present in a single space, and the context of a sentence cannot verify a presupposed referential existence for the denotation of ordinal phrases, di is a [-strong] determiner with an additive function and results in an indefinite quantity reading.

Development of an automated MODS plate reader to detect early growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

In this work, an automated microscopic observation drug susceptibility (MODS) plate reader has been developed. The reader automatically handles MODS plates and after autofocussing digital images are acquired of the characteristic microscopic cording structures of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which are the identification method utilized in the MODS technique to detect tuberculosis and multidrug resistant tuberculosis. In conventional MODS, trained technicians manually move the MODS plate on the stage of an inverted microscope while trying to locate and focus upon the characteristic microscopic cording colonies. In centres with high tuberculosis diagnostic demand, sufficient time may not be available to adequately examine all cultures. An automated reader would reduce labour time and the handling of M. tuberculosis cultures by laboratory personnel. Two hundred MODS culture images (100 from tuberculosis positive and 100 from tuberculosis negative sputum samples confirmed by a standard MODS reading using a commercial microscope) were acquired randomly using the automated MODS plate reader. A specialist analysed these digital images with the help of a personal computer and designated them as M. tuberculosis present or absent. The specialist considered four images insufficiently clear to permit a definitive reading. The readings from the 196 valid images resulted in a 100% agreement with the conventional nonautomated standard reading. The automated MODS plate reader combined with open-source MODS pattern recognition software provides a novel platform for high throughput automated tuberculosis diagnosis.

The Play of Repetition and Resemblance in The Romance of the Rose

The play of repetition and resemblance in The Romance of the Rose is a pervasive dynamic that contributes to the poem's general tendency to subvert straightforward interpretations of its allegorical meaning. To date, the workings of opposition and difference have received much more scholarly attention than those of repetition and resemblance. This is not surprising considering the Narrator's explicit endorsement of difference as productive of knowledge and understanding. (l) As a structural and organizational principle of the Rose, however, repetition possesses hermeneutic and thematic significance. By repeating central episodes in Guillaume, heightens ambiguities inherent in the first section of the poem, themselves caused by repetition. Repetition also implies similarity, or resemblance. Despite the differences between the character of the Narrator-Lover, the personification Fair Welcome, and the symbol of the rosebud, all three resemble one another. They are all characterized by a profound indeterminacy, which undermines not only the coherence of each, but also any definitive reading of the nature of their relationship. Because the central love relationships in courtly romance are overtly heterosexual, it makes sense to read the Rose as an allegory of courtship and seduction in which the rosebud and Fair Welcome stand for the female beloved and/or some attribute of her. Luce Irigaray argues, however, that sexual difference, the dynamic that informs heterosexuality, is really a mask for masculine self-sameness. Patriarchal discourses construct woman not as an other to, but as the same as, the masculine. (2) If masculine self-sameness constitutes feminine otherness, to what extent is the rosebud an image of the Narrator-Lover himself? The Narrator-Lover's desire for the bud is premised upon a dynamic of sameness, which is only partially masked by conventions of sexual difference. This sameness discloses itself in an underlying resemblance between the Narrator-Lover, Fair Welcome, and the rosebud as radically indeterminate constructs. Scholarly references to repetition usually focus on the relationship between the work of Guillaume and Jean. Per Nykrog sutas it up nicely: au niveau de l'action, de l'histoire racontee, ces 6500 premiers vers par constituent essentiellement une repetition et une expansion de ce que Guillaume avait deja raconte en 80 vers (2955-3134), l'Amant ecoutant les avis de Raison et ensuite, apres avoir refuse la resignation qu'elle recommande, les encouragements donnes par Atai. (9) at the level of action, of the recounted story, these first 6500 lines by essentially constitute a repetition and an expansion of that which Guillaume had already recounted in 80 lines (2955-3134), the Lover listening to the advice of Reason and afterwards, after having refused the resignation that she recommends, the encouragements given by Friend. (3) A number of reasons are offered as to why repeats Guillaume. C. S. Lewis states that he did not know what he was doing: Thus three of his episodes--the descent of Reason, the reassurances of Frend, and the coming of Venus--merely repeat episodes in his original (140). Nancy Freeman Regalado alleges that Jean's repetition of Guillaume is intentional and provides readers with a model of how to interpret the poeta: Jean himself practices the reading to which he aims to lead the future reader by reproducing the Roman of Guillaume and again (101). Readers of the romance are meant to repeat the lessons presented in the Rose. Kevin Brownlee argues that Genius rewrites Guillaume's Garden of Delight in order to criticize and correct it (125). Susan Stakel notes Jean's repetition of the Lover's recitation of the commandments of Love at the Fountain of Narcissus in Guillaume. The point of the repetition is structurally significant, with the Lover's recitation in Guillaume occurring at the midpoint of his 4000-1ine romance, and in at the midpoint of the conjoined romance. …

‘The Road to Freedom is via the Cross’ ‘Just Means’ in Chief Albert Luthuli's Life

ABSTRACT This article deals with the ambiguities relating to the use of violence on the part of Chief Albert Luthuli, president of the African National Congress (ANC) until his death in 1967, the first African to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The article examines what Luthuli said and did and what are argued to be multiple meanings attached to these. The article does not set out a definitive reading but uses statements of Luthuli and others to probe ambiguity and symbolism, which point to the possibility that much of his work may have opened up debate on the apparent fruitlessness of non-violence against an intransigent regime. Whether adoption of violence was Luthuli's desire is not argued, but he appears to have come to terms with it. The counter-arguments that stress absolute opposition to violence are not rebutted on a point-by-point basis to argue Luthuli's preference for violence, rather than possible pragmatism.

The Role of Physical and Occupational Therapies in Fall Prevention and Management in the Home Setting

Mrs. Smith, a 90-year-old woman living in New York City alone in a one-bedroom apartment, was referred for physical and occupational therapy by her primary care physician after she fell in her bathtub 10 months prior. The episode made the daily newspapers, as this particular fall resulted in Mrs. Smith being impaled by the bathtub faucet in her torso. The faucet had to be detached from the wall and remained lodged in her until she was delivered to the hospital, where it was surgically removed. The injury nearly killed Mrs. Smith. After returning to her home following months in the hospital and an inpatient rehabilitation setting and then receiving temporary Medicare-funded home health aides, Mrs. Smith was once again alone. She was receiving only 2 hours of daily private aide care. Physical and occupational therapists visited Mrs. Smith's home five or six times a week under Medicare Part B. Interventions consisted of strengthening Mrs. Smith's upper and lower extremities and her trunk muscles and increasing her balance. Mrs. Smith was also trained with adaptive equipment, and a tub transfer bench was added to her bathroom. Mrs. Smith had sworn that she would never enter her bathtub again, terrified of a repeat fall. Months of practicing and training with the physical and occupational therapist for the purpose of entering and exiting the tub, increasing her strength and balance, and utilizing the tub transfer bench allowed Mrs. Smith to have a shower in her home after nearly a year without one. Tears of joy and satisfaction streamed down her cheeks, as she recognized that she had conquered her fears and now felt confident again to bathe independently; a stronger, safer, and more capable person. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, in its July 2007 measure for Medicare Part B fall risk screening, used the definition of Tinetti, Baker, Dutcher, Vincent, and Rozett (1997) to determine the criterion of a fall. The definition reads, A sudden, unintentional change in position causing an individual to land at a lower level, on an object, the floor, or the ground, other than as a consequence of sudden onset of paralysis, epileptic seizure, or overwhelming external force. The definition of a fall seems to vary according to institutions; however, a common element seems to be unintentionally coming to the ground, floor, or other lower level. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that $19.2 billion annually is spent on treating the elderly for the adverse effects of falls: $12 billion for hospitalization, $4 billion for emergency department visits, and $3 billion for outpatient care. Effective interventions assume that falls are not the result of random accidents but are the result of the presence of numerous risk factors and a compromised medical condition. Two-thirds of those who experience a fall will fall again within 6 months. Two-thirds of falls are preventable. At least one-third of all falls in the elderly involve environmental hazards in the home. Most falls do not result in serious injury. However, there is often a psychological impact. Twenty-five percent of community-dwelling people 75 years old or more unnecessarily restrict their activities because of fear of falling. All health care professionals working with the older population know and understand the implications of falls, and all have a common goal: to improve the quality of life of the older adult. The status of geriatric patients is so complicated for any one medical professional that improved results can be obtained only if the entire interdisciplinary team works together. It is too daunting a task for any one to accomplish alone. The interdisciplinary team must work to maximize the quality of care and the quality of life for patients and their family caregivers. The interdisciplinary team may include but is not limited to the primary care physician, specialist physicians, physician assistants, nurse-practitioners, nurses, social workers, physical therapists, occupational therapists, administrators, nutritionists, and direct care staff such as certified home health aides. …

Eternally Eve: Images of Eve in the Hebrew Bible, Midrash, and Modern Jewish Poetry (review)

Reviewed by: Eternally Eve: Images of Eve in the Hebrew Bible, Midrash, and Modern Jewish Poetry Benjamin Edidin Scolnic (bio) Eternally Eve: Images of Eve in the Hebrew Bible, Midrash, and Modern Jewish Poetry, by Anne Lapidus Lerner (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2007). Though I have always had great respect for Anne Lapidus Lerner as a teacher, administrator and voice in the Conservative [End Page 91] movement, I opened her new book with a sigh of boredom: Another book about Eve? After all the feminist interpretation in the last few decades, how, I wondered, could anyone say something about the biblical figure that we haven't heard? So it is with surprise and delight that I report that this book is well-conceived and executed with learning and sophistication. It is impossible not to feel the love of Jewish literature that jumps off the pages. The book is divided into three major chapters, "The Creation of Woman" (with a very full exploration of the richness found in the two parallel/contradictory accounts in Gen. 1 and 2), "Life in the Garden of Eden" (with a detailed discussion of the varied views on Eve's disobedience, defense of her actions and her subsequent banishment from Eden) and "Eve Beyond the Garden" (with engaging, close readings of some breathtaking modern revisions of the image of the first mother). This arrangement facilitates personal study, as it allows one to find, say, a midrash or a modern poem about Eve after the expulsion from the Garden in Eden. Lerner does not pretend to be disinterested, which is just as well: Never trust a scholar who says he/she is objective. She is "self-aware" and does not claim to present a definitive or objective reading. To say that there are levels of meaning in a text is beautiful but controversial. It assumes a mystical view of the biblical text or the literary view that every text is the sum of all its readings. But some of us would still say, in our pedantic one-dimensional way, that a text was written in a certain time and place and that some interpretations are invalid. So if Lerner brings us an open yearning for egalitarianism, how will we harvest the various gleanings, poems and midrashim she brings for understanding the story of Adam and Eve? At the very least, with a fascination for the way the different generations bring their world-views to this ancient story. And we appreciate that Lerner, because of her respect for the biblical text, always sees the later writings, as their authors do, in dialogue with the Text itself. Since there is no way to do justice to all the knowledge transmitted here in this brief review, I will just take one verse, Genesis 3:16, in which God punishes Eve by saying that not only will she and her female descendants undergo severe pain in childbearing but that "your urge shall be for your husband/ and he shall rule over you." We find a close parallel in the next chapter where God warns Cain that though he is about to sin and "its urge is toward you/ yet you can be its master." Cain, as John Steinbeck famously explained in East of Eden, can control the temptation to sin. So the parallel apparently means that despite the pain involved in delivering children, women's desires will be for their husbands who will thereby rule over them. Even though Genesis 1:27 teaches that both sexes are created in the Divine image, this text is surely very problematic for egalitarian interpretation. Eve ruined the ideal situation by defying God's will and now must submit to Adam because she did not obey God. Rashi comments that the verse means that since men initiate the sexual act, [End Page 92] women are dependent on their actions. Ramban reads the whole verse to say that even though women will have pain in giving birth, they still will want sex. According to one traditional source, God's attempt to restrict Eve's sexuality to her husband was justified very quickly. In Pirkei de Rabbi Eliezer 21, Eve is likened to a fertile garden...

Law & Psychiatry: Mental Retardation and the Death Penalty: AfterAtkins

In Atkins v. Virginia the U.S. Supreme Court declared execution of persons with mental retardation to constitute cruel and unusual punishment, and thus to be unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment. However, the Court left all considerations regarding how to implement the decision explicitly to the states. Since Atkins was decided in 2002, legislatures, courts, and mental health experts have struggled with its implementation, highlighting the complexities that can arise when the courts base legal rules on clinical findings. This column reviews the Atkins case and considers the challenges associated with a clinical determination that can have life-or-death consequences for capital defendants.

Quantifier position in Japanese and the domain of specificity and indefiniteness

Abstract It has been noted that the variation in syntactic positioning of quantity expressions in Japanese - the pre-nominal construction and the NP-external construction - reflects different referential domains of the quantified entities (Martin 1975, Inoue 1978, Okutsu 1986, Downing 1996). The distinction between definiteness/indefiniteness as well as the notion of specificity have been used to explain the behavioral patterns of quantity expressions. However, due to the lack of a clearly defined framework that illuminates the relationship between the two separate referential categories of definiteness/indefiniteness and specificity/non-specificity, previous studies could not offer a coherent account of why the two constructions sometimes yield contrasting definite and indefinite readings, sometimes become synonymous, and sometimes allow slight differences in nuance. Using a framework that illuminates the relationship between the two referential categories, this study re-analyzes the observations made in previous studies and ascertains the referential characteristics of the two quantifier constructions. It suggests that the pre-nominal construction and NP-external construction do not express opposing domains of one referential category, but instead express one of the domains of two independent categories of referentiality, i.e. the domains of specificity and indefiniteness respectively. This study also discerns the referential meanings expressed by the constructions themselves from contextually derived meanings.

Processus de veille documentaire scientifique au profit de la veille sanitaire de défense

Résumé The main function of the Defense Health Service is to preserve the health of the projected forces. In this context, a Defense health watch duty was defined and entrusted to the Health observation Unit of the French Forces Institute of Tropical Medicine. To complete this mission, three documentation databases were created and broadcasted. Their updating, depending on innovation detection, requires a process of documentary awareness in six phases : definition of the topics to be supervised, selection of the documentary sources, gathering, analysis, reformatting and diffusion of the documents. The various phases are described and the process is evaluated in this article. The definition of the topics to be supervised shows its essential character to avoid the documents out-of-subject. The sources are selected on criteria of volumetry and cover. The gathering is automated by the tools of « push type » and RSS Feed (Really Simple Syndication). The innovation and the validity of the documents are evaluated according to a grid of definite reading. The documents are analyzed statistically by bibliometric tools. Formatted documents are finally spread via the owner network and by email. This process of documentary awareness, structured and organized, involves, for its users, an obvious saving of time. It allows an improvement in quantity and quality of the number of disseminated relevant information. However, it doesn’t yet allow to quantify in real time the number of users to the device.

Black beauty: Shade, hair and anti-racist aesthetics

Dark skin shade and natural afro-hair are central in the politics of visibility, inclusion and exclusion within black anti-racist aesthetics. This article focuses on black beauty as performative through looking at how the discourse of dark skin equals black beauty is destabilized in the talk of ‘mixed race’ black women. A dark skin shade and natural afro hair become ambiguous signifiers as the women's talk leads to a mobility of black beauty. Their talk is thus an interception in which there can never be a definitive reading of black beauty while also pointing to the binaries of the black anti-racist aesthetics on which they draw. Thus, while women are rooted in racialized and racializing notions of beauty they expand the boundaries of the beautiful black woman's body. Black beauty as an undecidable resists binaries without ever constituting a third term and arises through the disidentification and shame of cultural melancholia.

Reordering the State (without Changing the Constitution): Russia under Putin's Rule, 2000-2008

AbstractIn the present article, it is assumed that V.V. Putin will not have the 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation changed in order to help him arrange for a prolonged stay as President of Russia after his second term expires in 2008. It is also assumed that there will be no constitutional changes as to the power and the position of the prime-minister which would allow for an immediate 'return' of V.V. Putin in another capacity, namely as prime-minister, with much the same powers as he presently holds as President. The author expects that Putin will be true to his word in that he will maintain the 1993 Constitution (with the exception of minor change), that he will show to be—to use the Russian constitutional terminology—the garant of this Constitution.Nevertheless, within the framework of the 1993 Constitution, substantial changes have been made in the ordering of the Russian state, by federal law, by other means. The subordination of the subjects of the Russian Federation to the federal center, the 'emancipation' of state-politics from party politics, the 'emancipation' of democracy itself from party-politics, the penetration of societal organizations by state institutions (upravliaemaia demokratiia or suverennaia demokratiia), and the accompanying (state-) ideological changes, which have come about especially during Putin's second term, all add up to what is expected to be a lasting legacy. Putin has not changed the 1993 Constitution; he has given it its definite reading (interpretation) as it were.

Three Bicentennial Perspectives on Lewis and Clark

E s s a y R e v i e w W o r k s R e v i e w e d Fresonke, Kris, and Mark Spence, eds. Lewis & Clark: Legacies, Memories, and New Perspectives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004298 pages, $55.00/$21.95. Huser, Verne. On the River with Lewis and Clark. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004- 224 pages, $17.95. Jones, Landon Y. William Clark and the Shaping of the West. New York: Hill and Wang, 2004. 408 pages, $25.00/$ 15.00. T h r e e B ic e n t e n n i a l P e r s p e c t iv e s o n L e w is a n d C l a r k J a s o n W i l l i a m s M uch like the Lewis and Clark centennial celebrations of a century ago, the bicentennial commemoration of Lewis and Clark’s 1803-1806 expedition has been accompanied by an outpouring of scholarly atten­ tion. The Web of Science (including the Science Citation Index, the Social Sciences Citation Index, and the Arts and Humanities Citation Index) lists only sixteen titles from 1980 under the subject heading “Lewis and Clark.” In 1990 that number decreased to twelve, and in William Clark’s elkskin-bound journal. Clark Family Collection. Missouri Historical Society Archives. NS 26081. Photograph: Cary Horton. Courtesy Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis. © 2002. W e s t e r n A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e 4 0 .3 ( F a l l 2 0 0 5 ) : 3 4 4 - 5 2 . J a s o n W i l l ia m s 3 4 5 2000 it dropped to ten. In 2003, however, the first year of the expedition ’s bicentennial commemoration, scholarly articles about Lewis and Clark jumped to fifty-nine. In 2004 the number rose to seventy-■four— more than eight times the number of titles listed just four years earlier (Web of Science). If the level of academic interest in Lewis and Clark can be measured by the quantity of scholarly publications about them, then the two explorers are hotter now than they’ve ever been. In addition to simply becoming more prolific, Lewis and Clark scholarship has diversified. Before 2003, scholarly articles on the Lewis and Clark expedition were predominantly published in history journals. Since the advent of the bicentennial commemoration, however, scholars have examined the legacy of Lewis and Clark through more varied lenses: environmental studies, American literature, psychiatry, meteo­ rology, and surgery, to name just a few. Three book-length studies on Lewis and Clark that have come out in the last year are representative of this varied approach in the examination of the Corps of Discovery’s expedition. Lewis & Clark: Legacies, Memories, and New Perspectives, On the River with Lewis and Clark, and William Clark and the Shaping of the West tell three distinct stories about the Lewis and Clark expedition, its context, and its consequences. While none of the studies pretends to be the definitive reading of the expedition, each plays a part in unraveling the complexities of the two-hundred-year-old legacy left by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Kris Fresonke and Mark Spence, the editors of Lewis & Clark, divide their collection into four sections. “Contexts” includes essays about the American Philosophical Society (the organization that sponsored the expedition in 1803 and then organized and published its findings after­ ward), the scholarly edition of the Journals, and Lewis and Clark’s role as medical providers on the journey. In the section titled “Legacies,” Peter Appel explores the effect of the Louisiana Purchase on the Constitution; Raymond Cross investigates the long-term consequences of Lewis and Clark’s visit to the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Indians; and Charles Boewe uncovers how a lesser-known member of the expe­ dition influenced the linguist C. S. Rafinesque. “Memories” examines how the Lewis and Clark expedition was represented and understood in the centennial moment of the first part of the twentieth century. John Spencer demonstrates how the centennial celebrations of...