Definition Of Empowerment Research Articles

Empowerment interventions designed for persons living with chronic disease - a systematic review and meta-analysis of the components and efficacy of format on patient-reported outcomes

BackgroundEmpowerment approaches are essential for building the capacity of individuals with chronic disease to be in control of their health. Reviews of empowerment interventions have been focused on specific chronic diseases, thereby limiting the scope of findings. This study had three aims: 1) to describe the characteristics of empowerment interventions covering a broad range of chronic diseases, 2) to clarify consistency with the World Health Organization`s (WHO) definition of empowerment as a process composed of four fundamental components and 3) to summarize outcome measures and estimate the effects in group and individual intervention formats.MethodsSystematic literature review and meta-analysis. CINAHL, Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, COCHRANE and Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched using Chronic Disease, NCD, Empowerment, as MeSH terms. Eligible randomized and quasi randomized controlled trials were included. Review Manager 5.4 was used to conduct the meta-analysis. Risk of bias was assessed with the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool (ROB 2).ResultsThirty-nine articles representing 8,011 participants were included in the review. A majority (82%) of studies reported robust evidence for changes on study-defined outcome measures in favor of interventions. Intervention content was assessed against WHO’s four fundamental components of empowerment, showing that all studies incorporated one component, but none targeted all components. Components reflecting knowledge acquisition, patient engagement with their health care providers and facilitating environment were scarcely reported. Meta-analyses found evidence for positive effects of group-format interventions measuring empowerment, HbA1c, and self-efficacy. Effects on empowerment were also found in some individual-format interventions. High levels of heterogeneity and variability among the conceptual frameworks were identified.ConclusionEmpowerment interventions in group-format were most efficient, however, considerable conceptual inconsistencies were identified. Future studies should consolidate conceptual understandings by using WHO’s empowerment framework to ensure that fundamental components of empowerment are explicitly included in intervention design. Furthermore, there is a need to clarify the role of empowerment through pathways that include patient activation, self- management, and clinical outcomes. This systematic review will inform the clinicians and researchers who aim to develop novel empowerment interventions to assist patients in the process of gaining control of their health.Trial registrationPROSPERO: International Prospective register of systematic reviews ID=CRD42020178286.

Patient Empowerment in Cancer Care: A Scoping Review.

Patient empowerment is receiving increasing attention in cancer care, and its relevance has led to a growing body of literature. Empowerment-related evidence, however, has not been comprehensively reviewed. The purpose of this scoping review was to summarize the available evidence on patient empowerment in cancer care. Specifically, we examined how patient empowerment has been defined and measured and what we have learned. We searched 6 databases (MEDLINE, PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and PsycINFO), adapting key search terms (eg, "neoplasm," "empowerment") to each. Extracted data included author, publication year, country of data collection, main study purpose, study design, sampling method, setting, cancer trajectory, definition of empowerment and its source, measurement of empowerment, correlates, intervention (if applicable), and major results. Of the 2987 articles we initially identified, we included 64 studies (18 quantitative, 9 qualitative, 9 psychometric validation, 8 mixed methods, 6 reviews, and 14 others). Across designs, randomized controlled trials were the most frequent. A comprehensive summary by study designs was provided. The review highlights the importance of defining the empowerment concept, which is generally vague. There is a paucity of research on examining the relationship between empowerment and its related concepts. More nonexperimental studies (eg, cross-sectional, longitudinal, case-control studies) are required. Nurses are in an optimal position to engage in the process of empowerment, leading to its benefits. To achieve the best outcomes, nurses need to clarify the definition, select an appropriate measurement, and be trained in empowerment strategies.

Defining women’s empowerment in women and girl safe spaces: a call for collective self-determination

ABSTRACT Women and girl safe spaces (or “safe spaces”) are increasingly being implemented in contexts of forced displacement. With little research on safe spaces, their design and implementation has often relied on toolkits and practice guides that standardise how empowerment is defined and pursued within them. Drawing on my feminist ethnography of a safe space for Syrian refugee women in Beqaa valley, Lebanon, I share four women’s stories of (dis)empowerment in and because of the safe space. These women’s stories highlight the unintended negative consequences when meanings attached to empowerment are imposed by the organisation or not shared among women. Embracing collective self-determination over definitions of empowerment and its pursuit, instead, enables women to negotiate, organise, and work together to determine the shared meaning and future direction, because having collective power over the definition and pursuit of empowerment is also having power over what is deemed possible.

Co-producing a shared understanding and definition of empowerment with people with dementia

BackgroundEmpowerment for people with dementia (PWD) is not well defined within the research literature and we feel that this is an important area for development. It is important to seek, consult, and co-produce such a definition with PWD who are more actively involved in their communities post diagnosis (e.g. no longer the ‘long goodbye’). This study seeks to combine academic literature review methods with participatory/co-production methods in order to address this gap. We feel this approach also adds to developing methodologies in the field of co-production and user involvement.MethodsWe use a unique approach toward a definition of empowerment for PWD. Phase 1 - A scoping review of medical/health, social care and social policy-based databases to identify any previous literature that may have defined empowerment exclusively for PWD. Based on this literature, we collected a list of terms relating to empowerment for PWD. Phase 2 – Using empowerment key terms set on cards formulated from Phase 1 across three co-production workshops, academic team members, and nine members of Dementia NI (an organisation founded and led by people with dementia) we reviewed the findings of this search and co-produced an agreed definition they felt best described empowerment for them.ResultsPhase 1 and 2 led to a definition of empowerment relevant to PWD. This shared understanding of empowerment was defined by PWD as ‘A confidence building process whereby PWD are respected, have a voice and are heard, are involved in making decisions about their lives and have the opportunity to create change through access to appropriate resources’.ConclusionsThe strength of this research lies in addressing the current confusion and arbitrariness of empowerment within the context of dementia. This coproduced work also provides evidence for not only the possibility, but also the added value of involving PWD in research in terms of unique insights afforded by their lived experiences.

Uwarunkowania i korzyści empowermentu we współczesnych organizacjach

The objective of the paper is to present empowerment from various perspectives, indicate its determinants and applications in modern organizations. The paper is theoretical and informational in character. Empowerment revolving around the inclusion of employees into decision-making and development of their tangible influence upon the organization’s operations constitutes an answer to needs of modern enterprises. The paper reviews definitions of empowerment, describes its elements from the point of view of employees and companies, and presents benefits and costs of empowerment incurred by the organization. A review of studies pertaining to the impact of empowerment upon organizations was also conducted.

Fuzziness in conceptualisation of women’s empowerment, access to resources and autonomy: evidence from Indian states

Empowerment is instrumentally important for achieving positive development outcomes and well-being of life which lies in the doing and being what one values and have reason to value, i.e. agency. Sen made a strong claim for increasing the agency of the individual to enable them to be an effective agent of their own well-being and development. The concept of empowerment is very complex in itself, indeed very fuzzy also. Different scholars hold different definition of empowerment according to the need of their work. Women’s agency, autonomy and empowerment are widely used idea in development literature and capability approach. But there exists substantial ambiguity in conception of these ideas. While women’s well-being and women’s agency is sufficiently distinguished from each other, there seems to be a large overlap between agency and empowerment and between agency and autonomy. The present paper examines various conceptions of these ideas to clearly mark the overlapping zones and distinguishing features of respective concepts. It is shown that operationalisation of these concepts in empirical research covering all states of India is quite difficult and given the limitation of data sources only some dimensions of empowerment can be empirically tested at all India level. This paper uses NFHS-3 data set to do so. The second part of the paper carries out empirical testing of indicators of access to resources and autonomy for major 15 states of India and shows that access to resources and autonomy are not necessarily coterminous.

A Counseling Formula: Introducing Beginning Counseling Students to Basic Skills

Teaching basic skills to beginning counseling students can be an overwhelming experience. In each therapy session, students bring their own human qualities and life experiences that have shaped them as individuals. Trainees must understand that their needs, motivations, values and personality traits can either enhance or interfere with their counselor effectiveness. Cognitive mapping can help expand students' awareness while building the foundation of their counseling skills because it involves practical integration of learning attributes and prior knowledge into a new situation. Through the use of simple graphic visual learning tools, students can successfully incorporate basic skills into their development as counselors in an attempt to enable a positive initial learning experience that does not overwhelm them with the nuances and complexities of advanced counselor development.Keywords: counseling students, basic skills, counseling formula, cognitive mapping, graphic visual learning toolsWhy does occur in therapy? Theorists have attempted to answer this question over the decades. Certainly the starting place is to focus on the importance of the therapeutic relationship, which is central and foundational to therapeutic growth (Slattery & Park, 2011, p. 235). Specifically, the outcome of counseling involves a connection between the counselor and client that begins with warmth, empathy, respect and genuineness (Chang, Scott, & Decker, 2009; Flaskas, 2004; McClam & Woodside, 2010; Smith, Thomas, & Jackson, 2004).Rogers (1951, 1957, 1958) discussed his ideas about unconditional positive regard, congruence and empathy as basic key factors in the development of a therapeutic relationship. Moursund and Kenny (2002) summarized Lazarus' perspective and proposed that establishing the therapeutic relationship is the most important skill for clinicians, and involves a connection between the counselor and the client. Each influences the other by bringing individual strengths, knowledge of the situation, life experiences, as well as their own personal values and beliefs. therapeutic relationship is viewed as both a precondition of and a process of change (Prochaska & Norcross, 2003, p. 492). The purpose of this article is to explore one method of breaking down basic counseling skills into a manageable counseling formula in order to enable a positive initial learning experience for students without overwhelming them with the nuances and complexities of advanced counselor development.Challenges of Mastering Basic SkillsInitially, when introduced to counseling basic skills from a written textbook, students can find acquiring this knowledge to be challenging. Without prior experience, the challenge may intensify and become daunting when successful academic progress becomes an expectation defined by mastery of clearly defined basic skills. Counseling students struggle to appropriately apply these skills, while linked with timing and delivery.Counseling is a unique experience that is different from daily communications in social interactions. As counselors-in-training learn the art of counseling, they become aware of the necessity of using their skills to empower their clients to set appropriate goals. Often empowerment, a concept that focuses on clients' ability to choose their own solutions in life situations and issues, is a lofty ideal that is difficult to define. Even the definition of empowerment is ever-evolving (Asimakopoulou, Gilbert, Newton, & Scrambler, 2012). Empowerment's overarching theme further contributes to the complexities of the learning process for beginning students (Hill, 2005).While no one would argue the importance of empowerment or the significance of the therapeutic relationship, it also is critical that beginning students master many interpersonal skills while learning to observe, effectively attend to, and play an interpersonal role in shaping and guiding the counseling session (Ackerman & Hilsenroth, 2001; Chang et al, 2009; Jacobs, 1994; Jacobs, Masson, Harvill, & Schimmel, 2012; Meier & Davis, 2011). …

Endorsing empowerment? A critical comparative study of peace education in Jamaica and Peru

Is empowering peace education primarily about providing individuals with skills to respond to violence they experience and capabilities to enhance their own lives? Or is inspiring social transformation to alter forms of injustice that contribute to violence an equally valid and important dimension of an empowering peace education program? This article draws upon the authors’ experiences researching peace education programs implemented by local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in two different contexts: Jamaica and Peru. The basis for comparison is grounded in the discourse key actors in these NGOs utilized in reference to their respective educational initiatives, explicitly emphasizing empowerment for marginalized groups. Using critical qualitative techniques and troubling the idea of ‘empowerment,’ the authors analyze the discourse of empowerment to look beyond explicit truth claims and unveil tacit assumptions regarding the purpose and desired outcomes for the beneficiaries of their respective programs. The authors interrogate what definitions of empowerment – social and/or individual – the program stakeholders envision as well as how they believe such empowerment comes about. The study’s findings contribute to the need to critically unpack the commonly uncritical use of the term ‘empowerment’ as necessarily directed toward addressing social inequalities and altering unjust power relations.

An Overview of the Relationship between Empowerment and Staff Performance of Gilan Tax Affairs Administration

As inference from different definitions of empowerment, empowerment is to create an internal sense in individuals that can independently define as decisions that make in their work process. All these definitions refer to the decision-making autonomy and an inner strength is one of the most important aspects of empowerment. Today knowledge is so vast that no one can hope to even be encompassed a range of human knowledge. Therefore everyone as possible, use the benefit of this boundless sea and add a drop to it. Therefore, according to the wide range of empowerment topic and its dimensions, tries to present new content and tips. In this study we examine empowerment and its dimensions.

PROTOCOL: The Effects Of Economic Self‐Help Group Programs On Women's Empowerment: A Systematic Review

PROTOCOL: The Effects Of Economic Self‐Help Group Programs On Women's Empowerment: A Systematic Review

Has empowerment lost its power?

Empowerment is espoused as a flagship value ofhealth promotion. From the bold assertions in theOttawa Charter [1] and the Jakarta declaration [2]through to therecentcommitmentinNairobi[3], thediscourse of empowerment has been unwaveringthroughout. This short points of view paper intendsto stimulate critical discussion about the continuedvalue and use of empowerment in contemporaryhealth promotion. While empowerment has beenseen as a cornerstone of health promotion practiceand philosophy [4], we argue that unresolved chal-lenges associated with the concept may inhibit thecontinued primacy of empowerment within the dis-cipline. A recent evidence review of empowermentand its application to health and well-being (con-ducted by two of the authors and based primarilyon evidence published between 2000 and 2010) hasstimulated this assertion [5]. Lengthier discussionsabout these issues are currently being prepared forpublication; therefore, this short article intends tofocus on the definition of empowerment and, inthe authors’ point of view, the dilution of the con-cept from its original roots as a radical socialmovement.Empowerment,withitsoriginsinliberatorypeda-gogy, is generally viewed as an approach to enablepeople who lack power to become more powerfuland gain some degree of control over their lives andhealth [6]. This suggests that empowerment app-roaches must operate at various levels, from focuss-ing on both the individual through to organizationsand communities [7]. This perspective was capturedby Rappaport [8, p. 122] who suggested that em-powerment is:a process by which people, organzations andcommunities gain mastery over their affairs.This was further reaffirmed by Wallerstein[9, p. 198] who has referred to the concept as:...a social-action process that promotes theparticipation of people, organizations andcommunities towards the goals of increasedindividual and community control, politicalefficacy, improved quality of life and socialjustice.Labonte [10] describes empowerment as em-bodying both resistance to power structures throughadvocacy and processes such as community orga-nization, as well as community building and devel-opment. Thus, it is about giving and taking power inunison. In this respect, it is a zero–sum relationshipand power in essence is finite. For example,resources being directed at some people can causethe displacement of power (disempowerment) fromothers due to competition for the same resources[11, 12].In its widest and most radical sense, empower-ment concerns combating oppression and injusticeand is a process by which communities work to-gether to increase the control they have overevents that influence their lives and health [13].This is reflective of health promotion as it was in-tended tobe, albeit as an idealistic vision. Inthe pasttwo decades, however, the focus within publichealth and health promotion has increasingly

Empowerment: A Framework to Develop Advocacy in African American Grandmothers Providing Care for Their Grandchildren

Purpose. Based on a review of the literature, this paper presents a unique and innovative model that offers an empowerment framework, which may be used to develop advocacy in African American (AA) grandmother caregivers. This proposed framework centers on education as a catalyst to the empowerment process in these grandmothers. Application of this model has potential to guide the practice of healthcare providers as they assist these caregivers in managing their own lives. Methodology. Various empowerment definitions and research were used to develop this empowerment framework. Discussion. This framework offers an empowerment education program for AA grandmothers providing care for their grandchildren on topics that they feel are necessary to appropriately care for themselves and their grandchildren. Outcomes of this empowerment education are to develop skills within these grandmothers so that they will be able to advocate for themselves, their grandchildren, and others within their communities. This education will ultimately produce skillful AA grandmothers who will develop abilities to empower themselves and other AA grandmothers who are in similar circumstances.

Restorative justice and the active victim: Exploring the concept of empowerment

This paper departs from the observation that the victim image leading public discourse has transformed in recent years: increasingly victims reject the traditional victim label implying helplessness and dependency to adopt the image of the emancipated victim that wishes to participate in the criminal proceedings. Restorative justice at first sight provides an answer to these emancipated victims? wishes, offering them participation in criminal proceedings. Yet, using the concept of empowerment as an example and the community psychology perspective as a theoretical reference, our analysis suggests that restorative justice uses a restricted definition of empowerment: it reduces empowerment to developing self-confidence and new understandings of the offence, neglecting the behavioural component of empowerment. This characteristic of restorative justice seems to deny victims? capacities to promote social change and inhibit them from reaching true empowerment.

Conceptualizations of Female Empowerment and Enjoyment of Sexualized Characters in Reality Television

This study explores how young women's definitions of empowerment relate to their reception of The Girls Next Door, a popular reality show that documents the life and fun times of Hugh Hefner's three sexy, live-in girlfriends. Specifically, we examine whether young women's general attraction to reality television relates to their endorsement of different views of women and empowerment, how these endorsements relate to the women's own sexual permissiveness, and finally how these views relate to perceptions of The Girls Next Door. Results suggest that reality television preferences relate to greater endorsement of sexual empowerment and traditional feminine roles. However, sexual permissiveness is elevated only when sexual empowerment is endorsed, and perceptions of the show appear to be most positive only when sexual permissiveness is elevated.

Community empowerment in Botswana: the practitioners' perspective

The term empowerment has become a buzz word used by development organisations and government sectors to make development programmes sound technically correct. These programmes are often the cause of the poor becoming disillusioned and passive, since these programmes often do not achieve what they have set out to achieve. One such group that is responsible for the empowerment of community members in poverty and other special circumstances, is the home economics extension officers (HEEOs) in Botswana. This article focuses on the HEEOs’ understanding of the term empowerment as well as the subsequent actions they are taking to bring about empowerment and the hindrances that impede their empowerment practices. Qualitative data gathering methods in the form of open-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were carried out with HEEOs to understand the phenomenon of empowerment. A focus group discussion was in addition conducted with one community sewing group. It became evident that HEEOs linked the term empowerment mostly to training and education. This is contrary to literature, which describes training and education as only the beginning of the empowerment process. Empowerment will however only take place if individuals are encouraged to define their own goals and to act upon them. HEEOs included community members in planning, implementation and evaluation of development programmes, but there is no evidence of authentic involvement. Community groups were also not adequately mentored and supported by HEEOs. In addition, the system within which empowerment practices are carried out appeared to be not conducive to supporting HEEOs in their empowerment practices. Keywords: Empowerment definitions, empowerment strategies, home economics extension, community development.

The Question of Empowerment: Women’s Perspective on Their Internet Use

This study poses the question of whether and under what conditions the Internet is or is not an empowering tool for women Internet users in Bangladesh. The main focus of the study is on those women who, academically or professionally, are not associated with technology, and hence, we turn our gaze on home-based women Internet users, who by defi nition, belong to the elite of society. The study is based on the concept of empowerment in terms of agency. In-depth interviews were conducted with 16 participants. The aim of the research was to attain information on women’s use of the Internet, what they understand by empowerment, and to fi nd out whether their use of the Internet contributes in any way to their empowerment. The study shows that women are using the Internet for many interesting purposes, including giving the fi rst glimpse of a newborn child to distant family members and expanding business worldwide. According to their defi nition of empowerment, women respondents believe that their use of the Internet is bringing positive changes to their lives. This assists in achieving empowerment, they noted.

Empowerment in Adolescent Obesity: State of the Science

Obesity rates have dramatically increased across the nation. Rural areas, however, have a higher rate of obesity and physical inactivity than urban areas. Interventions for obese adolescents require change behavior and motivation. One factor involved in this process is empowerment. Empowerment may be defined differently by disciplines, yet the overall meaning is similar. Self-awareness, enabled potential, and outcome related activities are defining attributes of the concept. This paper provides a conceptual analysis of empowerment through the literature, examines methodological tools and issues, and describes empirical aspects of the concept. A literature review of the aspects of empowerment and its relationship to obesity shows that low self-esteem and obesity are related. More research is needed to adequately understand how self-esteem, motivation, and goal-directed behavior impact the process of reducing obesity in the adolescent population. The cultural definition of empowerment must be considered to adequately understand the influence of the concept in adolescent weight reduction.

Equipping and Empowering for God’s Service: Empowerment: Sociological, Psychological, Organizational, and Biblical Perspectives for Empowering People and Organizations

The theme of the EPTA conference included the concept of empowerment. Scholars have not been able to agree on a definition of empowerment (Beairsto et al 2003; Dewettnick et al 2003; Herrenkohl et al 1999; Siitonen 1999). The concept is used in multiple contexts with various meanings. They range from mystical personal experiences to cutting edge definitions used in business practices and academic debate. In the academic discussions, two notions are pertinent. On one hand, empowerment is considered as something positive that can add value to current practices in leadership, organizational development, and scientific understanding of our world. On the other hand, the researchers are growing increasingly sceptical about the meaning and usefulness of the concept of empowerment and its practical applicability (Beairsto et al 2003; Dewettnick et al 2004).

The Philani Experience: Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women in South Africa

The rapid sociocultural, political and economic change following the fall of apartheid in South Africa presents a unique opportunity to study gender equality and empowerment through the availability of nonformal education (NFE) and employment programs in the disadvantaged Khayelitsha area on the outskirts of Cape Town, South Africa, where half of the population is jobless. Philani, a community‐based nonprofit NGO, offers women immediate assistance in three main ways: skills development, training, and employment; nutrition rehabilitation and health; and an on‐site preschool program. The efficacy of the program, definitions of empowerment, gender relations, and future employment opportunities were examined through the use of individually structured interviews with Philani participants. Community participation is very high, and in many cases, has led to women experiencing a measure of independence for the first time. Insights from these interviews contribute to a larger discussion of changing cultural constructs, gender relations, and effects of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In the concluding section, we look at the implications of women's empowerment in terms of the effects on men, and identify parities in current research and study.

A Wellness Service-Learning Project Improves The Perception of Professional Empowerment in Physical Therapist Students

William A Romani, PT, PhD, SCS, ATC, and R Lance Holbert, PhD Background and Purpose. There is an increasing demand to train physical therapist students to effectively develop, promote, and deliver wellness and health promotion programs. The purpose of this study was to determine whether participating in a community-based wellness or health promotion project improved the student's sense of empowerment by increasing their confidence in their ability to independently plan and participate in a similar service-learning project in the future. Subjects. Participants were 32 students enrolled in the second year of a 3-year Doctor of Physical Therapy program. Methods. Students attended a lecture on health and wellness promotion (WP) based on the Guide to Physical Therapist Practice. Groups of 5-7 students were assigned to 1 of 5 prearranged WP activities throughout the second year of their curriculum. Each group planned and completed a WP, reflected on the project through written self assessment and peer feedback, and completed a pre and postproject questionnaire. A nonparametric Friedman test was used to analyze questionnaire data and determine whether or not students' perceptions of professional empowerment shifted across time. Results. After completing the WP, students felt significantly more empowered to complete a similar project in the future. Discussion and Conclusion. Participating in service-learning projects may increase physical therapist students' sense of professional empowerment to practically apply health and wellness promotion concepts learned in their curriculum and may make them more confident to participate in similar activities after graduation. Key Words: Community health, Health promotion, Educational outcomes, Student confidence. INTRODUCTION There is an increasing demand for allied health professionals to develop health and wellness programs to promote the health of their clients as well as advance their profession and create a market niche for their practices.1 In 2006 the Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy Education (CAPTE) accreditation guidelines included 6 criteria that addressed prevention, health promotion, and wellness.2 The increased demand and new CAPTE criteria have created a need for physical therapist education programs to provide students with the skills to independently develop, promote, and execute wellness outreach programs following graduation. The Guide to Physical Therapist Practice' describes the roles that physical therapists play in prevention, health promotion, and wellness and how these roles fit within the scope of physical therapist practice. Although the concepts presented in the Guide can be presented in the classroom setting, creating effective, practical experiences to successfully implement these principles and empower students to use them after graduation is more challenging. In acute care, rehabilitation, and outpatient practice settings, physical therapist students participate in clinical internships structured by the Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI)4 to objectively measure educational outcomes. Wellness and health promotion are components of the CPI, but students rarely have the opportunity to apply these concepts to all clinical settings; the subject often must be addressed in other parts of the physical therapist education curriculum. One option for students to practically apply wellness and health promotion is a structured service-learning model. Service-learning models have previously been used in nursing,5,6 medicine,7 occupational therapy,8 and physical therapy9-11 settings to teach clinical skills and improve the student's confidence in their own ability to competently perform these clinical skills. Improving self-esteem and confidence in the ability to apply knowledge and skills are consistent with previous definitions of empowerment 12-17 and have been shown to be indicators of a student's likelihood to use his or her learned skills after graduation from other health professional programs. …