Defensible Space Theory Research Articles

Proliferations of Gated Communities and the Fear of Crimes: An Empirical Study of Some Select Gated Communities in Zaria and Sabon Gari Local Government Areas, Kaduna State, Nigeria

Gated communities are becoming increasingly popular in Zaria and Sabon Gari Local Government Areas of Kaduna State. The objectives of the study were to investigate the reasons for the proliferation of gated communities, and their safety and security. The study adopted the Defensible Space Theory. This article which is an empirical endeavour used the qualitative method in collecting and analysing data. In-depth interviews were conducted to elicit primary data. Key findings of the study revealed that the proliferation of gated communities was a result of the high level of insecurity and the quest for a secure community. The study further discovered that informants interviewed in the gated communities feel safe and secure against all forms of criminal activities. The study recommends that the Kaduna State government should design a policy that will make gated communities a residential development pattern in urban areas like Zaria and Sabon Gari.

Identifying key urban design attributes for enhanced sense of safety – the case of El-Sherouk city in Cairo

PurposeSafety, one of the basic human needs for existence, is a very important factor in achieving a successful urban space. A lack of its presence could make it challenging for residents of a place to live and function effectively. Therefore, this study aims to identify the urban design attributes that would potentially enhance the perceived sense of safety, mainly focusing on two case studies in El-Sherouk neighborhood in Cairo. The two selected case studies are considered car-oriented due to their reduced levels of safety.Design/methodology/approachThis study was conducted through a set of data collection phases from field surveys and survey questionnaires that infer the influence of the surrounding urban environment on a specific target group. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) statistical analysis tool was used to analyze data collected from survey questionnaires.FindingsFinally, by the end of this research, a set of urban design qualities vital for achieving the desired levels of safety were introduced. The findings of this study revealed key urban design qualities that can potentially contribute to enhancing the perceived sense of safety as they showed a strong positive correlation: (1) imageability, (2) transparency, (3) complexity and (4) human scale and enclosure. Moreover, multiple linear regression indicates that urban design qualities are strong predictors of perceived safety.Originality/valueThis study presents a holistic approach to studying the relationship between urban design and perceived safety by examining two case studies located in El-Sherouk City in Cairo, Egypt. While previous research has focused on one theory of safety design such as crime prevention, defensible space theory, eyes on the street or safer city centers, this article tries to fill in the gap in the literature by analyzing all aspects of urban design and its correlation to an enhanced perceived safety. In addition, most of the previous studies have tackled the safety aspects of old urban settlements. However, this study tackles a new urban settlement.

Effect of Strategic Interventions on Reducing Transformer Vandalism: A Case of Kenya Power Limited

Purpose: Electricity plays a significant role in the industrialization of a nation. However, frequent power outages caused by transformer vandalism result in high company losses and economic losses. The overall aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of strategic interventions that have been adopted by Kenya Power on reducing transformer vandalism. The study specifically aimed at effectiveness of strategic policies, human resource management and technical research development adopted by Kenya Power on reducing transformer vandalism. The study was supported by Defensible space theory, Manageable space theory and Physical design and kinetic management theory.
 Methodology: A descriptive research design was employed in the study where the target population comprised of 128 managerial staffs in Kenya Power working at the firm’s headquarters in Nairobi comprising of senior managers, middle level managers and front line managers. A sample of 97 respondents was selected through Krejcie and Morgan sample table. The study utilized a five point Likert scale questionnaire in collecting data. The collected data was analyzed quantitatively through descriptive and inferential statistics and qualitatively through thematic analysis. The results were outlined in form of tables and figures.
 Findings: The results established that the strategic interventions employed by KPLC such as strategic policies, human resource management and technical research development positively and significantly contributes to the reductions in the number of transformer vandalism cases. The results bears the implications that enhancing the strategic interventions leads to a reduction in the number of transformer vandalism in KPLC.
 Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends to the management of Kenya Power and Lighting Company to enhance the levels of strategic policies, strategic human resource management practices and technical research and development since the practices leads to a reduction in the number of cases of transfer vandalism.

The reflection of Newman's defensible space theory on Turkey's neighbourhoods: typomorphological analysis of safe-space within an analytical framework

PurposeThe research intends to investigate the different typological and morphological characteristics of the neighbourhood spaces produced by different urban dynamics since the late nineteenth century in Turkey.Design/methodology/approachThe main problem that drives the research is that a significant increase in the construction of gated communities has started to be seen in the last five years as a solution to safety issues in Turkey. However, these gated communities as safe-spaces have resulted in the danger of destroying neighbourhood life's physical and social dynamics by changing their spatial configuration. The study offers an analytical framework structured from defensible space theory and other safe-space theories in the literature. It has analysed the effect of physical characteristics of urban fabric on the production of safe-space in neighbourhoods through mappings and site observations. The case studies are conducted in three different morphological periods in Turkey, which are the Seyrancik neighbourhood in Bolu (the Ottoman Period), the Subayevleri neighbourhood in Ankara (the Republican Period) and the Karaman neighbourhood in Sakarya (the Liberalisation Period).FindingsThe analysis concludes that any type does not come to the fore in the production of defensible space in terms of its spatial features, but each has various strengths and weaknesses. As a result, this study emphasises the role of design in providing defensible neighbourhoods in the case of Turkey's cities and reveals the aspects that will guide the design of an urban and housing form in terms of the safety–environment relationship in Turkey.Originality/valueThe significance of the study is the comparative analytical approach to studying the housing development and demonstrates a method for analysing safety issues in the transformation process of neighbourhood structures in Turkey.

Protecting a Broken Window: Vandalism and Security at Rural Rock Art Sites

The majority of the ancient rock art sites of the U.S. Southwest are located in rural locations that are difficult to monitor or police. These sites seem to exert a pull on humans, an attraction that not only provokes curiosity and wonder but also what can be classed as destructive responses or vandalism. Many crime control methods for reducing vandalism are based on traditional theories such as defensible space and broken window theory. In the case of rock art, however, these methods do not yield expected results and in some cases are even detrimental. Rural crime, including rural vandalism, as a whole is marginalized in criminology, which has been dominated by urban-focused approaches and theories. In the case of rock art, considering how security is approached and maintained ultimately leads to questions about human–object relationships with regards to crime and about object agency. By focusing on the policing challenges of one particular type of rural vandalism, we hope to contribute to the discussion of vandalism in rural spaces.

Social Roles of Night-Watchmen: An Assessment of Media Representations Based on Defensible Space Theory

Güvenlik hizmetlerinin asayişi temin ve halka yardım vazifelerinde yerel düzlemde sorumluluk üstlenen ve kentlerin en küçük mahalli birimlerinde görev alan çarşı ve mahalle bekçileri Türk toplumun geleneksel bir toplumsal grubudur. Çarşı ve mahalle bekçiliği süregeldiği farklı tarihsel dönemlerde varlığını kurumsal açıdan her zaman korumuş, ancak suçun önlenmesi noktasında görev anlayışı ve sahadaki uygulamaları dönemsel şartların beklentilerine göre değişikliğe uğramıştır. Bununla beraber modern toplum anlayışı sosyalleşme süreçlerine atfettiği rol nedeniyle psiko-sosyal dürtüler arasında yer alan güven duygusunun toplumun üyeleri arasında yaygınlaşmasına da odaklanmıştır. Bu çalışma; çarşı ve mahalle bekçilerinin görev tanımlarının düzenlendiği ve 2020 yılında yürürlüğe giren 7245 sayılı kanun kapsamında çarşı ve mahalle bekçilerinin toplumsal rolünü medya temsilleri üzerinden incelemektedir. Suç önleme faaliyetleri çerçevesinde hazırlanan medya temsillerini savunulabilir mekân teorisinin öncelliğinde post pozitivizm bakış açısıyla nitel araştırma yöntemiyle analiz etmektir. Bu çerçevede 2016-2020 yılları arasında haber sitelerinin “Çarşı ve Mahalle Bekçisi”, “Suç İstatistikleri” ve “Suç Önleme” kavramları üzerinden yapılan tarama sonuçları içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. Bekçilerin suç önlemeye dönük katkıları asayiş uygulamaları üzerinden makro veriler üzerinden anlatılırken, toplumsal iş birliği ve duyarlılığın gelişiminde başarılı faaliyetlerin belirtildiği anlaşılmış, ancak toplum destekli suç önleme faaliyetlerine dair sağlıklı bir veri elde edilememiştir. Çarşı ve mahalle bekçilerinin sorumlu olduğu mahallelerde suç önlemeye dair faaliyetlerinin mikro ölçekte daha belirgin bir şekilde ifade edilmesi ve suç olaylarının çözümlenmesinde toplum desteğinin katkısının yansıtılmasının faydalı olacağı sonucuna varılmıştır.

The spatial configuration of crime in Surabaya

As a second larger city in Indonesia, Surabaya is listed among highest crime rate city in this country. One of the prominent crime in Surabaya is a street crime. This is a type of crime that often occurs in in public spaces which can be experienced by anyone. One of the urban planner guideline in integrating spatial approach to prevent crime is defensible space theory, this research is deducting the theory as a variable as well as inducting variable that might vary between location to country. Using ethnographic approach, the interview was conducted with a crime offenders that later triangulate with the other conventional expert. This research found that there are two (2) types of space in each crime incident, which researcher defined as a action space and defense space. Action space consist of three types of space which are: the observation space, the execution space, and the escape space. Meanwhile, the defense space can be categorized as space that can be maintained positively and space that can be maintained neutral.

Magnetic Places in Riga Soviet Residential Areas

This article focuses on magnetic places in Riga Soviet residential areas – locations which are differ from ordinary spaces due to their naturalness, possibility of restoration, perceived beauty and possibility to appropriate such places. This paper utilises two theoretical fields – the one of evolutionary aesthetics in dealing with such elements as prospects and refuges that is crucial for survival, but also phenomenology dealing with mental maps and subjective perception of space. The method in use is semi-structured interviews, since they provide a valuable in situ material for proving a theoretical thought. It can be concluded that the magnetic places that often are as much as 200 m far from the interviewees’ homes are more attractive than the location outside their window. This finding is in stark contrast to Oscar Newman’s Defensible Space Theory. There are also few recommendations for landscape architects included in this text: one of those is to not only invest more resources into the design of magnetic places, but carefully design the ordinary places. The latter should be done not only in order to avoid the arousal of no-go areas in a residential complex, but also because any ordinary space has a potential of becoming a place.

THE PROVISION OF VERTICAL SOCIAL POCKETS FOR BETTER SOCIAL INTERACTION IN HIGH-RISE LIVING

High-rise living makes it difficult for social communities to form despite the provision of several dedicated social spaces at ground, podium, mid- and roof-levels, partially due to the sheer number of residents per block. The pull of easily-accessed, solitary recreational activities such as surfing the Internet and watching television further exacerbates the problem. Social spaces need to be brought closer to residents to promote social interaction. This paper proposes to improve social interaction by supplementing currently stratified social spaces with vertically-connected social hubs using existing transitional spaces in high-rise living, such as the lift lobby, to create micro-communities comprising the residents of each respective floor in a cost-effective way. Previous research indicated that strong communities look after each other, indicating that the creation of microcommunities will create an effect not unlike the defensible space theory. Therefore, this paper analyses residential high-rise layouts based on chosen case studies in Malaysia, then suggests several possible design outcomes that turn the lift lobby into social spaces at every floor level.

THE PROVISION OF VERTICAL SOCIAL POCKETS FOR BETTER SOCIAL INTERACTION IN HIGH-RISE LIVING

High-rise living makes it difficult for social communities to form despite the provision of several dedicated social spaces at ground, podium, mid- and roof-levels, partially due to the sheer number of residents per block. The pull of easily-accessed, solitary recreational activities such as surfing the Internet and watching television further exacerbates the problem. Social spaces need to be brought closer to residents to promote social interaction. This paper proposes to improve social interaction by supplementing currently stratified social spaces with vertically-connected social hubs using existing transitional spaces in high-rise living, such as the lift lobby, to create micro-communities comprising the residents of each respective floor in a cost-effective way. Previous research indicated that strong communities look after each other, indicating that the creation of microcommunities will create an effect not unlike the defensible space theory. Therefore, this paper analyses residential high-rise layouts based on chosen case studies in Malaysia, then suggests several possible design outcomes that turn the lift lobby into social spaces at every floor level.

Adaptation of Defensible Space Theory for the Enhancement of Kindergarten Landscape

This paper addresses the safety issue of kindergarten premises in Malaysia as a result of improper planning of the landscape area. Crime cases in Malaysia that revolve around kindergarten premises have occurred repetitively throughout the years. Hence, a study is executed to address the issue with reference to Defensible Space theory. This study identifies the presence and absence of landscape principles of Defensible Space theory in the chosen effected premises and provides modification based on the said theory in the existing guideline for the kindergarten landscape development in Malaysia.

Space–Time Dynamics of Crime in Transport Nodes

This article assesses space–time variations of crime rates in underground stations. Drawing on assumptions from time geography, routine activity principles, and defensible space theory, the study investigates daily, weekly, and seasonal variations of crime at underground stations in the Swedish capital, Stockholm. Data from extensive field work at the stations was combined with crime records and passenger flow to test whether stations’ environmental attributes affect crime at different times. Geographical information systems, spatial statistic techniques, and modeling underpin the methodology used in the study. Findings show that crimes tend to happen more often in the evening, at night, on holidays, and on weekends. There is also evidence of seasonal variations of crime. In the winter, stations with social disturbance and signs of deterioration show high levels of crime, whereas in the summer, offenses are concentrated in stations nearby alcohol selling outlets. Stations with hiding spots are often targeted for crime during daily peak hours, whereas during holidays, crowded stations and those with alcohol selling outlets attract more criminal activities. Results suggest that the role of the stations’ environment on crime causation varies over time—an important fact for safety interventions.

Urban Green Cover as a Predictor of Altruism: A Study of Dehradun and Haridwar

Urban 'angst', incivility, crime, lack of empathy and reduced social support counterbalance the economic benefits of living in cities. The long-term psychological and social effects of these conditions are well-known. One notable consequence of living in cities is a decrease in helping behavior, which is closely linked to the trait of altruism where help is given without expectation of return.As cities become increasingly complex, altruism is threatened by rising levels of materialism and competition for scarce resources. At the same time, it is more necessary than ever to foster this trait amongst city-dwellers, for protecting individual integrity, identity and mental health from disorganization in the new urban order. The phenomenon of urbanization is irreversible. However, its negative consequences can be moderated by enhancing the livability of cities. Urban green cover plays a vital role in achieving this goal.AltruismHelping or pro-social behavior is generally defined as any behavior carried out with the intention of benefiting another person. However, the helper either consciously or unconsciously engages in the prosocial behavior because s/he will be rewarded. The key point that differentiates helping from altruism is that helping may involve a selfish motivation. There is no such motive present in altruism.Altruism is helping behavior (without expectation of extrinsic rewards and sometimes involving personal risk or sacrifice) that benefits individuals or society. is a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's (Batson, 1991).Conditionsfostering AltruismThe proposal that empathie concern produces altruistic motivation has been called the empathy-altruism hypothesis (Batson, 1991). Empathy is a term used for the processes employed by an individual to understand the subjective experience of others. Empathie concern has been found to direct attention to the long-term welfare of those in need, producing more sensitive care (Sibicky, Schroeder, & Dovidio, 1995). Empathy-induced altruism has also been found to improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, including racial minorities, people with AIDS, the homeless, even convicted murderers and drug dealers.Nelson and Dynes (1976) explored the impact of religious devotion and attendance at religious services on a variety of helping behaviors. The researchers found that devotionalism, church attendance and level of religious commitment were positively correlated with levels of helping behavior, both in routine and emergency situations.Social skills training that improves people's empathising abilities (Stepien & Baemstein, 2006) also tends to improve their ability to be altruistic. Altruism can be fostered, especially among the young (Sutton et al., 2006). Essentially, nurturing people is the best way of nurturing their altruism (Knafo & Plomin, 2006). Conversely, people who are not nurtured tend to become both physically and emotionally insensitive to the needs of others (DeWall & Baumeister, 2006).Physical conditions of the environment effect on altruismDefensible space (DS) theory suggests that the architectural features and physical layout of residential buildings substantially influence patterns of informal contact among neighbors and informal surveillance. Contact among neighbors and informal surveillance are, in turn, known to be linked to strength of community and levels of crime (Taylor, 1988). Although defensible space theory says very little about vegetation per se, the theory clearly has implications for natural as well as built features of residential outdoor spaces.Green spaces in cities may strengthen community interaction, thereby reinforcing social ties which lead to higher incidence of helping behaviour. In addition, the restorative benefits of natural vegetation (e.g. Frerichs, 2004) would reduce attention fatigue. Residents would be able to more quickly perceive incidences requiring help and make more accurate appraisals of the urgency of the situation. …

The Future of Newman's Defensible Space Theory

This paper will highlight the evolution of defensible space theory — from Newman's original theoretical model to some of the subsequent theoretical and empirical developments that have been made in the past 35 years. By charting these developments in our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of defensible space, the aim of this paper is to illuminate the aspects of the theory that remain ambiguous and those that have been clarified to some extent by developments in criminological research. This paper will suggest that the most ambiguous of Newman's concepts is that of `milieu'. It will be argued that this key defensible space concept draws on situational aspects of spatial layout and accessibility, land-use patterns and routine activities of place. With this in mind, this paper will attempt to re-conceptualize defensible space within the context of situational crime prevention theory by elucidating the effect that routine activities of place have on territoriality and the creation of defensible space.

Public Housing Residents Making Their Courtyard Safe From Drugs

ABSTRACT This pilot study examines how children and their caretakers who live in public housing experience and manage drug activities that surround them. Consistent with social disorganization/collective efficacy models and defensible space theory, findings from 2 focus groups suggest that monitoring children, shared values about parenting, and screening strangers entering the community helped residents establish a safe environment with healthy principles. Residents insulated their courtyard neighborhood from outside public housing residents, presumably to minimize competition over resources and restrict what they see as negative influences. Social work community practitioners need to tap into the collective efficacy of these vital neighborhoods to help the broader public housing community.

THE APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF DEFENSIBLE SPACE FOR SECURED HOUSING ENVIRONMENT

Housing areas in Malaysia has always relied on the local authorities to take care of the neighbourhood, resulting in apathy in respect to the community's well being, safety and a rise in crime. Most housing developments have been designed to provide a secure home rather than a secured living environment. The provision of a large and undefined communal space, leads to a situation of "anonymity" and become "lost spaces" which allow criminals to "disguise" among the crowd. A viable solution in ensuring a secured housing environment is through the provision of "defensible" communal spaces that encourage community interaction and social cohesion. This paper will discuss the current problems concerning crime and safety in high-density housing settlement in Malaysia. The paper will also review the prevailing ideas and concepts that have been articulated by prominent theorists for the designer to use in designing secured housing development, This is where the defensible space theory raises the issue of 'creating' a community within a neighbourhood, and how it could be applied successfully to local housing.

THE APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF DEFENSIBLE SPACE FOR SECURED HOUSING ENVIRONMENT

Housing areas in Malaysia has always relied on the local authorities to take care of the neighbourhood, resulting in apathy in respect to the community's well being, safety and a rise in crime. Most housing developments have been designed to provide a secure home rather than a secured living environment. The provision of a large and undefined communal space, leads to a situation of "anonymity" and become "lost spaces" which allow criminals to "disguise" among the crowd. A viable solution in ensuring a secured housing environment is through the provision of "defensible" communal spaces that encourage community interaction and social cohesion. This paper will discuss the current problems concerning crime and safety in high-density housing settlement in Malaysia. The paper will also review the prevailing ideas and concepts that have been articulated by prominent theorists for the designer to use in designing secured housing development, This is where the defensible space theory raises the issue of 'creating' a community within a neighbourhood, and how it could be applied successfully to local housing.

Resident Appropriation of Defensible Space in Public Housing

Defensible space (DS) theory proposes that the built environment can promote neighborhood safety and community by encouraging residents’ appropriation of near-home space. This article examined the relationship between three different forms of resident appropriation and residents’ experiences of neighborhood safety and community. Results from a survey of 91 public housing residents living in moderately defensible spaces suggested that residents who defended near-home space through territorial appropriation experienced the neighborhood as a safer, more cohesive community than did residents who did not appropriate space in this way. Residents who spent more time outside experienced the neighborhood as a safer place; however, casual social interaction in near-home space was not consistently related to outcomes. While no causal information is available from the correlational data presented here, this work takes an important step of providing empirical evidence of a systematic link between certain aspects of resident appropriation and positive outcomes. Implications for DS theory and for public housing policy are discussed.

DEFENSIBLE SPACE THEORY AND THE POLICE: ASSESSING THE VULNERABILITY OF RESIDENCES TO BURGLARY

This study examines how defensible space theory and recent modifications to it apply to assessments of single-family dwelling vulnerability to burglary by police officers. Fifty photographs of detached houses were scored on fifty-five specific physical cues in six defensible space cue categories. Forty-one police officers reliably rated the vulnerability of the houses to burglary. A modified Brunswik lens model was used to determine which cue categories police officers use to assess vulnerability. Simple and partial correlation analyses show how road and occupant surveillability, actual barriers, traces of occupancy, and house value are related to vulnerability assessments by police; symbolic barriers are unrelated to their assessments. Police assessments of vulnerability are, based on previous research, very similar to those of residents, but less similar to those of burglars. Suggestions for a more parsimonious and pluralistic defensible space theory are made.

Residents' and burglars' assessment of burglary risk from defensible space cues

This study investigates the relation between defensible space features and residents' perceptions of burglary risk. A modified Brunswik lens model is used to compare the results with those in Macdonald and Gifford's (1989) study of burglars' perceptions. Photographs of single-family dwellings were assessed on 55 individual defensible space cues and six cue categories. Fifty community residents reliably rated the photographs on perceived vulnerability to burglary. Residents rated houses with greater road and occupant's surveillability as less vulnerable to burglary and houses with more actual barriers as more vulnerable. Symbolic barriers, traces of occupancy, and house value were not correlated with residents' vulnerability ratings. Overall, residents' and burglars' perceptions of vulnerability were correlated by 0·68. Implications for defensible space theory are discussed.