Defence Policy Research Articles

Resilience through total defence: Towards a shared security culture in the Nordic–Baltic region?

Abstract This article investigates the defence policies of the Nordic and Baltic countries from the perspective of shared security culture. To that end, the article analyses conceptualisations of total defence and resilience in a comparative perspective and inquires into existing and prospective regional cooperation in this area, in order to determine to what degree there exists a common security culture based on shared norms and identities and manifested in practices of security cooperation. The study, which draws on 19 interviews with civil servants from the eight states of the region, shows that while there is fertile ground for a shared security culture to emerge, thus far, due to variations in conceptualisations, threat perceptions, and interaction preferences, only three Nordic states show clear signs of a shared security culture. The study contributes to existing research by situating the concept of resilience in (total) defence discourses; by expanding the theoretical work on security culture to an international context; and by offering a unique empirical account of the process of (re)building total defence policies in a region crucial to European security.

An access to innovation program to enhance the technological capabilities of the armed forces

As part of “Strong, Secure, Engaged: Canada’s Defence Policy” (Department of National Defence (2017) Strong, Secure, Engaged) released in 2017, the Canadian Department of National Defence (DND) announced the creation and implementation of an access to innovation program to be called the “Innovation for Defence Excellence and Security (IDEaS)” Program. The IDEaS Program was introduced to support, increase, and sustain science and technology (S&T) community capacity external to DND that can generate new ideas and formulate solutions to Canada’s current and future defence and security innovation challenges. This paper will explore the design of this new business model through the delivery of the first proof of concept to have gone through the whole IDEaS cycle, in order to showcase the validity of this concept and processes. It also demonstrates that IDEaS has allowed a closer relationship with innovators and firms that had never worked with the defence industry, as well as the identification of novel solutions to a host ofproblems/challenges facing defence and security.

Reforming the common security and defense policy in the long term, considering the threat from Russia

This article analyzes the need to reform the Common Security and Defense Policy of the European Union in the long term, with a particular focus on the threat, posed by the russian federation. The growth of russia's aggressiveness and foreign policy ambitions creates the need to strengthen and adapt the security and defense policy of the European Union. A number of decisions, adopted by the European Union as a countermeasure to russian aggression against Ukraine, are analyzed. The article also examines the reasons that led to the need for institutional reform and key aspects of it, including the strengthening of the Union's military capabilities, the development of the cyber security sector and the expansion of cyber defense infrastructure, ensuring an increase in joint financing of the defense sector and cooperation with strategic partners. The importance and necessity of political unity and joint action among the member states of the European Union, strengthening of defense capabilities, defense cooperation, improvement of crisis management mechanisms and provision of mutual assistance between member states for effective response to threats from russia were emphasized. The article calls for intensive cooperation and coordination between the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, as well as for strengthening external partnerships with countries that share common values and have common security interests in the implementation of joint projects and programs in the field of security and defense to ensure stability and security in the region. Reforming the Common Security and Defense Policy is a key factor in ensuring Europe's collective security in the medium and long term, taking into account the needs and challenges of the modern geopolitical environment, and through joint action, the European Union can act as a united front in security solutions and international cooperation

Crumbling in the face of cost? How cost considerations affect public support for European security and defence cooperation

In surveys, Europeans routinely express high levels of support for a common security and defence policy of the European Union. Do these responses reflect real demands or superficial support that would crumble if the issue was politicised? This article provides new answers to this question. We conducted pre-registered survey experiments with more than 40,000 respondents from 25 European countries in which we randomly varied whether respondents received information about potential costs of two hypothetical cooperative activities: military operations and defence procurement. Support for these activities was systematically lower when costs were mentioned. We conclude that, in the event of politicisation, there is considerable potential for shifts in opinion and that caution is required in deriving a mandate for specific activities from high approval rates for cooperation in general.

Optimal Attack and Defense for Reinforcement Learning

To ensure the usefulness of Reinforcement Learning (RL) in real systems, it is crucial to ensure they are robust to noise and adversarial attacks. In adversarial RL, an external attacker has the power to manipulate the victim agent's interaction with the environment. We study the full class of online manipulation attacks, which include (i) state attacks, (ii) observation attacks (which are a generalization of perceived-state attacks), (iii) action attacks, and (iv) reward attacks. We show the attacker's problem of designing a stealthy attack that maximizes its own expected reward, which often corresponds to minimizing the victim's value, is captured by a Markov Decision Process (MDP) that we call a meta-MDP since it is not the true environment but a higher level environment induced by the attacked interaction. We show that the attacker can derive optimal attacks by planning in polynomial time or learning with polynomial sample complexity using standard RL techniques. We argue that the optimal defense policy for the victim can be computed as the solution to a stochastic Stackelberg game, which can be further simplified into a partially-observable turn-based stochastic game (POTBSG). Neither the attacker nor the victim would benefit from deviating from their respective optimal policies, thus such solutions are truly robust. Although the defense problem is NP-hard, we show that optimal Markovian defenses can be computed (learned) in polynomial time (sample complexity) in many scenarios.

A Game-Theoretical Self-Adaptation Framework for Securing Software-Intensive Systems

Security attacks present unique challenges to the design of self-adaptation mechanism for software-intensive systems due to the adversarial nature of the environment. Game-theoretical approaches have been explored in security to model malicious behaviors and design reliable defense for the system in a mathematically grounded manner. However, modeling the system as a single player, as done in prior works, is insufficient for the system under partial compromise and for the design of fine-grained defensive policies where the rest of the system with autonomy can cooperate to mitigate the impact of attacks. To address such issues, we propose a new self-adaptation framework incorporating Bayesian game theory and model the defender (i.e., the system) at the granularity of components. Under security attacks, the architecture model of the system is automatically translated, by the proposed translation process with designed algorithms, into a multi-player Bayesian game. This representation allows each component to be modelled as an independent player, while security attacks are encoded as variant types for the components. By solving for pure equilibrium (i.e., adaptation response), the system’s optimal defensive strategy is dynamically computed, enhancing system resilience against security attacks by maximizing system utility. We validate the effectiveness of our framework through two sets of experiments using generic benchmark tasks tailored for the security domain. Additionally, we exemplify the practical application of our approach through a real-world implementation in the Secure Water Treatment System to demonstrates the applicability and potency in mitigating security risks.

Are the Defense Policy and Military Expenditure in China Economically or Politically Driven?

Are the Defense Policy and Military Expenditure in China Economically or Politically Driven?

The role of technological modernization in Brazil's border security: a study on the Integrated Border Monitoring System (SISFRON)

The central purpose of this study is to conduct a scientific analysis of the influence of technological innovations on crime mitigation and the enhancement of public security in the border zone of Brazil. This examination aims to understand how the adoption of cutting-edge technologies can contribute to reducing criminal activity and strengthening security in the country's border areas. This study is of great relevance as it seeks to assess the importance of implementing the Integrated Border Monitoring System (SISFRON) as a preventive and repressive measure against crimes in the border regions between Brazil and other Latin American countries. SISFRON is essential as it integrates the Armed Forces, government agencies, and federative states, playing a crucial role in National Defense. The methodology employed in this work is based on a deductive approach, involving qualitative bibliographic and documentary research. The analysis of institutional documents, mapping of key actors from institutions involved in border protection, and investigating their role in promoting public security and defending Brazilian borders are fundamental steps in this research. By concluding this study, it is expected to confirm that SISFRON emerges as a significant tool of the National Defense Policy. It not only focuses on internal security and strengthening territorial defense in border areas but also serves as a link for cooperation between neighboring countries, enabling the sharing of information and joint actions in combating various forms of transboundary illicit activities.

THE EUROPEAN UNION’S RESPONSE TO MALI’S FRAGILITY PROBLEMS AND THE OPERATION EUCAP SAHEL MALI

In light of recent events that have brought Mali back to the focus of the international community, this article aims to analyse on the basis of the various strategies adopted by the European Union to address the complex problems affecting the Sahel region, the basic pillars of the action of the International Organization for European Integration in this area of the African continent, and in particular in Mali, following a diagnosis of the situation on the ground, focusing the analysis on the civilian mission of the EU Common Security and Defence Policy, EUCAP Sahel Mali.

Political culture and defence policy: a model of five-subtypes to explain the Spanish defence political culture

ABSTRACT European citizens’ attitudes towards defence are a fundamental element of common identity in the EU’s aim of becoming a unitary international actor. In Spain, since the early 2000s, the Spanish Ministry of Defence and the Armed Forces have developed a public policy to promote defence culture to influence Spanish society’s views, perceptions, opinions, etc., towards defence and military policies. However, this approach is flawed because, despite being defined as part of the Spanish citizens’ political culture, these institutions reduce this concept to ‘knowledge’ or ‘awareness of its importance’. Therefore, the understanding of the Spanish defence political culture has been ill-analysed. Hence, a political culture related to defence issues can be best explained within the political culture framework, from which an ideal type, in the Weberian sense, can be established. Thus, based on previous studies, using survey data and both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (EFA & CFA), we test five sub-models to explain this political culture. This research is relevant to the study of the defence political culture because it reaffirms the existence of different cultural subtypes and civil–military relations and shows that the cultural gap in the convergence of values must be worked on in a segmented manner.

미활용 군 부동산 관련 민-군 갈등관리 방안에 관한 연구

1. CONTENTS
 (1) RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
 The purpose of this study is to contribute to national defense policies by analyzing the status of conflicts over unused military sites and deriving effective measures to manage such conflicts and utilize unused military sites.
 (2) RESEARCH METHOD
 For the study method, the status of conflicts over unused military sites in the border area since 2020 was analyzes, and the methods including literature review and advice from experts were used.
 (3) RESEARCH FINDINGS
 Conflicts can be effectively managed if the existing civil-local government-military cooperation system is operated in a timely and appropriate manner. it is suggested that the military continue to review practical utilization plans for unused military sites in the border area and make efforts to strengthen ties with local communities.
 2. RESULTS
 As a result of the study, there was a need to expand the sites for common use to ensure the benefits for both the private and the military in addition to legal and institutional supplementation for the use of unused military sites.

Populism, Collective Narcissism, and Support for War

Abstract People’s pro-war attitudes provide an important lens for understanding the various conflicts and wars taking place around the globe. The present research bridges the social psychological insights on ingroup identity with the macro realism theory of international relations studies. It examines the association of populism and collective narcissism with support for war under the conditions of offensive and defensive realist foreign policies. The research comprises two studies. Study 1 shows that populism is linked with offensive realism, whereas collective narcissism is associated with defensive realism. Study 2 further demonstrates that the perceptions of threat mediate the relationship between collective narcissism and support for war, rather than mediating the relationship between populism and support for war. Both populism and collective narcissism are related to authoritarianism. This research contributes to a theoretical understanding of the effects of populism and collective narcissism on resorting to military actions in international politics.

Franco-German leadership in the context of EU defence policy: from Brexit to the strategic compass

ABSTRACT Leadership is crucial for the success of a collective actor in reaching common goals. Its relevance is particularly visible in the EU, due to the difficulty in managing and converging a wide range of interests, especially in the intergovernmental field of defence. This article analyses Franco-German transactional leadership throughout the evolution of the EU’s security and defence policy, with a focus on the effects of Brexit. By highlighting the concept of leadership in international relations, this study identifies Franco-German actions and strategies within the Common Security and Defence Policy, reflecting on how these have shaped European defence and how Brexit changed existing dynamics. We conclude that France and Germany have led the EU’s security and defence project, albeit with limited success, with a shift towards a successful relaunch of EU defence in the aftermath of Brexit, aided by doubts over NATO and war in Ukraine. At the core of that limited success and representing the main obstacle lay diverging interests and strategies.

Regression Analysis of The National Cyber Security Index In The Southeast Asia Region

In the current era of the Industrial Revolution 4.0, information and communication technology is rapidly developing in all sectors. In the matrix of non-military defense implementation, technology is one of the dimensions that influence the achievement of a country's general defense policy. Technological development does not always have a positive impact. Cyber threats and attacks are an example of the negative impact in technological development. In the "Cyber Defense Guidelines," national cyber security is defined as all efforts to maintain the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and all its supporting facilities at the national level, which are cross-sectoral in nature. According to data from the National Cyber Security Index (NCSI) survey agency, a country's National Cyber Security Index (Y) is measured based on 12 indicators, including: cyber security policy development (X1), cyber threat analysis and information (X2), education and professional development (X3), contribution to global cyber security (X4), protection of digital services (X5), protection of essential services (X6), e-identification and trust services (X7), protection of personal data (X8), cyber incident response (X9), cyber crisis management (X10), fight against cybercrime (X11), and military cyber operations (X12). In this study, a regression analysis will be conducted on the 12 indicators of the National Cyber Security Index against the Total Assessment of the National Cyber Security Index (Y) in Southeast Asia, so that the type of equation in the regression analysis can be identified.

Paradigmatic stability, ideational robustness, and policy persistence: exploring the impact of policy ideas on policy-making

Abstract In the policy world, the idea of ideational robustness deals with why and how policy elements can be maintained over time and the implications this has for government strategy and activity. Past approaches to ideas and their influence on public policy stressed the disparate roles of multiple policy mechanisms such as path dependency or the nature of policy networks in either driving policy change forward or ensuring persistence of a policy. Ideational robustness on the other hand allows for the possibility of some changes occurring in policy environments and components while motivating cognitive and normative policy ideas are adapted and retained. While ideational persistence has often been identified as a source of policy stability, the possibility that some ideas allow lesser or greater levels of change in policy components while basic policy content remains more or less intact (ideational robustness) is much less well understood. The article reviews the literature on policy change and stability which highlights the influence of different policy processes on overall policy dynamics and the role played by policy learning in promoting ideational robustness. Using evidence from military doctrines and procurement in Canada and Australia, the study finds that the two countries drew different defence policy lessons from the end of the Cold War which contributed heavily to the extent of robustness of their defence policy ideas. The case studies show that ideational robustness is important but also that its study must be combined with that of other policy mechanisms and processes in order to explain overall policy change patterns.

Indonesia's Defense Policy In Addressing Space Threats In Perspective Of Defense Management

Indonesia's Defense Policy In Addressing Space Threats In Perspective Of Defense Management

From the history of the defense policy of Kazakhstan Republic (1991-1997)

Relevance. Through specific archival and historical data, this research article describes the purpose of the Republic of Kazakhstan's defense policy, which is based on the goal of peacekeeping, which dates back to the country's early days of independence, the course, results, and historical significance of this activity. In addition, a description and analysis of the fact that this national-level action was carried out in a variety of ways. Purpose. The aims and objectives of the state's defense policy were established and authorized on a legal basis in the first stage. The training strategy for national military experts in several fields has been designed and accepted. The issue of the Armed Forces' contemporary equipment has been addressed and implemented. Methodology. From this period, the Republic of Kazakhstan began to work to ensure the defense capabilities of the Armed Forces of the country, as well as to ensure stability and peace in Central Asia. In particular, the Republic of Kazakhstan became a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization, founded by the CIS member states, and began to hold joint events. Results. In particular, cooperation in the field of joint defense with the Russian Federation was established and further developed. For this purpose, equal relations with the People's Republic of China have been ensured. From the first days of independence, the Republic of Kazakhstan has laid the foundation for multifaceted cooperation with the Republic of Turkey in this area. The work of the Republic of Kazakhstan carried out by mutual agreements of this content with the United States was remarkable. At the same time, attention was paid to the relations of independent Kazakhstan with NATO and its adoption was included in the “Partnership for Peace” Program. Conclusions. As a result of the concrete measures taken for this purpose, the capacity of the Armed Forces of the State has increased and has become a strong guarantee of the country's security.

From Counterterrorism to Deterrence: The Evolution of Canada’s and Italy’s Defense Postures

How do US democratic allies perceive and adapt to the multiple challenges associated with the rise of multipolarity and the return of major war in Europe? This article examines how two US allies—Canada and Italy—have adapted their defense postures from the professed beginning of the shift in the balance of power in 2008 to Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. More specifically, it provides a comparison of three major dimensions of defense postures: threat perceptions, patterns of foreign military deployments, and military expenditures. This article argues that both allies have undertaken a shift from liberal interventionism towards a defense posture increasingly geared towards deterrence vis-à-vis Russia. However, the shift did not occur analogously and simultaneously, as the two allies’ adjustment was shaped by differing levels of domestic inter-party contestation. This article highlights the extent to which US allies’ international security adaptation follows political-party threat perceptions more than the traditional left-right dichotomy. Shared inter-party threat perceptions of great power revisionism are found to shape the degree of defense policy adaptation toward great power competition.

Analisis Implementasi Hankamrata di Indonesia ditinjau dari Aspek Anggaran Pertahanan Negara

Defense and security are the main elements of the sustainability of a sovereign state with a variety of strategies that will be applied in accordance with national and even international dynamics. In formulating defense and security policies, national vigilance becomes a reference for various threats that go back and forth. Indonesia, which adheres to the Universal People's Defense and Security System (SISHANKAMRATA), has developed short and long-term defense strategies with efforts to optimize defense resources both in terms of infrastructure and technological and management adjustments. One of the main elements in developing potential defense resources is the source of funds or budget. In allocating the defense budget, the main concern is the creation, maintenance and equipping of the armed forces. The purpose of writing this article focuses on the concept and implementation of the Universal People's Defense System (SISHANKAMRATA) in terms of state defense budget management. The research method used is a literature study. The results of the literature study show that it is important for the government to make defense force development plans through sufficient and balanced budget allocations to create reliable defense capabilities. The program must be implemented in a transparent and accountable manner so that the available budget can be utilized as efficiently as possible for a utilization of the importance of a concept of defending the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia.
 Keywords: Defense, Sishankamrata, Defense Budget, Hankamrata.

New Nordic pathways? Explaining Nordic countries’ defence policy choices in the wake of the Ukrainian war

ABSTRACT In May 2022 Finland and Sweden took the historical decision to apply for membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). One month later, after a three-decade long opt-out, Denmark voted overwhelmingly in a referendum to join the European Union (EU) common defence policy (CSDP). Combining organised hypocrisy with post-functionalism, the article focuses on the normative and pragmatic concerns underlying states’ interaction with international institutions. Empirically, the article analyses the long-term political-institutional dynamics between Nordic countries, the EU CSDP and NATO since the end of the Cold War, and how they have been reshaped by the crisis provoked by the Russian attack on Ukraine.