European Defence Research Articles

The economic costs and benefits of the European Future Combat Air System

ABSTRACT The Future Combat Air System (FCAS), a sixth-generation advanced combat aircraft, is assumed to be the largest European defence development and production programme of the 21st century and a core pillar of European cooperation in the defence sector. The 2017-initiated collaboration programme is led by Germany and France, with Spain and Belgium joining as partners, and is a who-is-who of the largest European defence companies, including Airbus Defence and Space, Thales, Safran, MBDA, and MTU. While such defence programmes have significant military, political, industrial, and economic impacts, the economic dimension in terms of economic costs and benefits is often under-represented in academic discussions. As the FCAS is still a nascent programme, only rough estimates of the total programme cost are available, and assumptions range from €100 bn to more than a trillion. With our research, we aim to contribute to the academic discussion by estimating the true economic costs and benefits of the FCAS. We use a mixed approach of data triangulation by cross-checking open source intelligence (OSINT) with expert interviews to estimate the full programme life-cycle costs. Furthermore, we estimate its economic impact on the European gross value added, employment, and tax by utilising an input – output (IO) model.

Women and the Polish-Lithuanian Army: Between Legal Norms and Everyday Life

The article describes the presence of women in the armies of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These armed forces differed from the European military as there was a small proportion of women accompanying the soldiers. The differences did not disappear until the following century. The duties normally performed by women were fulfilled by ‘camp servants’, and military law strongly fought against any form of female presence, with the exception of soldiers’ wives and tradeswomen.

European Security Dilemmas: A Comparison of Germany and France's Approaches to the Relationship of the EU and NATO Roles in Europe after 2022

In 2016–2017, it was the Franco-German tandem which nurtured European security integration. The leaders of both states have been used to reaching a compromise despite different approaches to Atlanticism and Europeanism balance. However, the Ukrainian conflict escalation has changed the defense policies pursued by France and Germany. This paper argues, that during the last two years the differences between the two states concerning security issues have widened. With Germany even more relying on NATO as the most important security guarantor for Europe, France tends to simultaneously argue for a stronger, more independent European defense. Amid limited resources, it became more difficult for both parties to compromise. The article compares shifts in German and French policies on three levels, that are conceptual (the role of NATO and the EU in strategic papers and addresses of the French and German leaders), program-initiative (involvement in NATO and the EU security initiatives over the past two years), and military-industrial (joint projects and procurements). The research reveals that since the Ukrainian crisis escalation France and Germany have tended to rely on NATO as the main security guarantor, still the former is strongly committed to effectively strengthening European security. Germany and France differ in terms of their involvement in NATO and the EU security initiatives as well as procurements. Having its own nuclear weapons and military-industrial complex, the latter is less committed to NATO, yet highly supports European defense projects, seeking economic and political benefits. Germany prioritizes proven NATO structures, bilateral initiatives, as well as transatlantic defense procurements. The paper reveals a correlation between the policies of Germany and France and their dependence on the US military-industrial complex.

Transformation in European Defence Supply Chains as Ukraine Conflict Fuels Demand

Transformation in European Defence Supply Chains as Ukraine Conflict Fuels Demand

CHANGING APPROACHES TO FINNISH SECURITY ISSUES AFTER THE COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION

The transformation of the modern world order has led to a change in the relationship between the Russian Federation and Finland. The latter took an unfriendly position towards Russia, which, of course, could not but affect Finland's security policy. On April 4, 2023, Finland joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and largely defined a new era in the formation of its defense policy. The author tries to assess this event through the analysis of the transformation of Finnish security issues after the collapse of the Soviet Union. How unexpected was the decision to join NATO? Or was it the result of purposeful attempts to change the internal system of approaches - both to interaction within the framework of the Nordic countries and cooperation with Russia? These are the main questions that the author raises in the article, attempting to analyze the changing approaches in the field of Finnish security issues after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The author's conclusions indicate that the changes in security policy (which led the country to NATO) are the result of a fairly systemic policy of strengthening the joint Northern European defense, pressure from Western allies, and the growth of the «Russian threat». We can also talk about a gradual evolution from the soft aspects of security to its more rigid forms in security policy, which is undoubtedly due to the departure from cooperation with Russia

European defence integration after Trump's re‐election: A proposal to revive the European Defense Community Treaty and its legal feasibility

AbstractDonald Trump's re‐election as President of the United States and Russia's aggression of Ukraine pose unprecedented challenges to transatlantic relations and European security. The EU as it is is unprepared to take care of its defence. This article explores how the law can be activated creatively to achieve defence integration in Europe and proposes to revive the 1952 European Defence Community (EDC) Treaty. Specifically, the article claims that, in strictly legal terms, the EDC can be brought into operation today—simply with the ratification by two states: France and Italy—and provides comprehensive arguments from public international law, comparative law and domestic constitutional law to make the point. Needless to say, legal feasibility does not equate with political feasibility, and the article mentions several of the obstacles and challenges along this path. Yet, shedding light the EDC has two advantages. On the one hand, the article emphasises how the EDC—with a common army, funded by a common budget and governed by supranational institutions—constituted an articulated response to the problem of securing European security. On the other hand, it identifies a differentiated path to achieve greater European defence integration.

The United States and European Defense Integration

US-EU relations regarding European defense integration has passed several milestones since the 1990s when the West first faced serious challenges in Europe after the end of the Cold War. The military conflicts in the Balkans, resulting from Yugoslavia’s break-up gave momentum to the integration process in the European Union. Profound changes in international environment are making the United States reconsider its views on the defense integration unfolding in the EU. Placing more responsibilities on the European Union in the security area entails the necessity for Washington to overcome entrenched prejudices, as well as suspicions that the EU ambitions may pose risks and challenges to NATO coherence. Increased EU activities in shaping European military-industrial policy and in providing large-scale supplies of weapons and ammunitions to Ukraine are leading the United States to take a fresh look at the process of European defense integration.

Trapped in the grey zone: NATO-CSDP relations in a new era of European security governance

AbstractThis paper critically examines the complementarity of NATO and the EU’s Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), proposing a reassessment of their roles to explore potential reforms. It contributes to the forum on “Organising European Security” by tracing the historical origins of issues, such as “consensus escapism”, that challenge European security governance. In addressing this issue, the paper explores three scenarios for institutional reform: abolishing the CSDP, integrating it into NATO, or pursuing European strategic autonomy. The analysis shows that while such reforms could reduce strategic ambiguities, they might also undermine crucial community maintenance functions, especially those fulfilled by the CSDP for the EU. Following the Ukraine invasion, the structural parameters of NATO/CSDP relations have remained largely unchanged; however, the analysis indicates an emerging dynamic of a “compartmentalised geographic approach” to strengthening European security. This approach, while not eliminating NATO-CSDP ambiguities, may allow for a viable balance of community maintenance and power projection in a changing security landscape.

European Union Priority Agenda Post-Covid 19 Pandemics In Security And Defense Sectors

This research aims to explore and analyze the fundamental factors of the European Union's (EU) post Covid-19 priority agenda in the defense and security sector. The pandemic has shown that strengthening the defense and security sector to protect the country and its citizens from new threats is important and urgent for the European Union. The EU's post-pandemic priority agenda in the defense and security sector plays a crucial role in enhancing the defense and security capabilities of the European Union. This research focuses on five priority agendas, including: increasing military capacity, strengthening the European defense industry, enhancing cooperation among EU member states, improving cooperation with partner countries, and enhancing cybersecurity. This research seeks to answer the question of why it is important for the European Union to establish adjustment measures in the defense and security sector as a post-Covid-19 priority agenda and which programs are included in these five priority agendas. This research is a qualitative study that utilizes the European Security within the Constructivism paradigm proposed by Barry Buzan, Ole Waever , and Jaap de Wilde. This theory explains the dynamics of security in Europe and considers security a product of a complex social process that depends on the identities and norms present in the international community. In this theory, European identity is important in shaping European security. European identity is formed through historical and political processes that involve interactions and conflicts among European countries. Initial findings suggest that the EU's post- Covid-19 priority agenda in the defense and security sector is an effort to protect member states from external threats, but also to strengthen European identity in maintaining security.

Strategic options for the European defence industry in the 2020s

ABSTRACT In times of the “Zeitenwende” European defence industrial companies face several challenges simultaneously: high fragmentation of the industrial ecosystem and product portfolio, a historic focus on small-volume production of complex weapons systems, the need to expand capacity fast, diverging European national security strategies, Europeanisation of the security sector, and a dominant US defence industry, among others. This article analyses the most likely strategies for the European defence industrial companies as a response to this situation. The analysis is based on 18 semi-structured expert interviews with representatives of the European defence industry, academia, and politicians to identify and assess the strategic options. Porter’s Diamond framework is used to assess the impact of governmental influence, availability of production factors, historic chance, and structure of the value chain on the selection of strategies. The analysis focuses on pan-European industry consolidation, exports, self-funded R&D, internationalisation, co-operation with SMEs, and future large-scale defence co-operation programmes.

THE GEOPOLITICAL AWAKENING OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF THE RUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN WAR

The article analyses the impact of the Russian-Ukrainian war on the geopolitical transformation of the European Union (EU). It examines the key changes in the EU's security, energy and international relations strategy, as well as the development of its strategic autonomy and role in supporting Ukraine. The study is based on the analysis of scientific sources and political articles related to the EU's foreign policy and security mechanisms. A comparative analysis of the EU's decisions on sanctions, energy security and military assistance to Ukraine is used. Expert assessments of the geopolitical situation and economic consequences of the war are also taken into account. The article contributes to understanding the role of the Russian-Ukrainian war as a catalyst for the EU's political and strategic awakening. In particular, it highlights the development of the EU's strategic autonomy in response to its energy dependence on Russia and the growth of defence cooperation between member states. The author also explores how the war has contributed to the consolidation of European identity and the strengthening of the desire for global leadership in the face of current international challenges. The author notes that the Russian-Ukrainian war has accelerated changes in the EU's approach to foreign and security policy. The EU has strengthened its strategic autonomy, increased economic sanctions against Russia and mobilised resources to support Ukraine. At the same time, the war has shown the need to develop energy resources independent of external suppliers and to increase the EU's internal defence capabilities. Ukraine's integration into the European space has become an important strategic direction of the EU's policy. An important aspect has been the strengthening of European defence cooperation, which demonstrates the EU's desire for greater independence in security matters. Ukraine's integration into the European space is becoming one of the key directions of the EU's foreign policy, which may accelerate the process of Ukraine's accession to the Union in the future. The author also draws attention to the fact that the issue of strengthening the EU's defence capabilities affects the problem of the international security system, which today, as a result of the Russian-Ukrainian war, is undergoing the greatest transformations since the Second World War.

Retrospective and prospects of the legal framework for European Integration in security and defence

The study addressed the historical background and development of the regulatory framework for European defence policy, starting with the Treaty of Brussels in 1948, and the establishment of the Western Union and the Western European Union. Based on the analysis of such documents as the Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice Treaties, the mechanisms of defence cooperation within the EU and its main goals, primarily the strengthening of strategic autonomy, were determined. The study also analysed the Berlin-Plus agreement, which established mechanisms for cooperation between the EU and NATO, while promoting the development of independent European defence and security capabilities. The key role of the Lisbon Treaty in formulating the foundations of the EUʼs Common Security and Defence Policy was identified. The importance and prospects of implementing Article 42(7) of the Treaty, which enshrines the principle of mutual assistance of member states in the event of an armed attack, as well as permanent structured cooperation for deeper defence integration, was highlighted. These provisions increase the EUʼs strategic autonomy and consolidate European defence cooperation, defining it as an important component of the EUʼs Common Foreign and Security Policy. The relevance of furt her improving the EU legal framework in response to new threats was determined, in particular, due to Russian aggression in Ukraine, as well as growing tensions in other regions. The need to strengthen legal mechanisms that will ensure more effective decision-making processes within the EU CSDP and strengthen security cooperation among member states was emphasised. The research relevance is determined by the possibility of using its results as a theoretical basis for the development of the EUʼs common defence policy and further integration in the security sector in the context of current geopolitical challenges

Target detection, ISAR imaging and tracking capabilities of a passive radar net utilising barrage jamming signals

AbstractJammers aim to interfere with active radars during military operations. Still, they can strengthen our capabilities on the battlefield if there are proper methods to use them. This paper demonstrates the possibility of utilising a ground‐based barrage jammer (to jam radars or communications) as an illumination source for passive radar detection, tracking and inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging. It shows the feasibility of using a jammer for cooperative (friendly jammer) and non‐cooperative (hostile jammer) operations. The results come from the European Defence Agency project no B 1516 IAP2 GP entitled jammer‐based passive radar. This article will present some of the outcomes of field trials conducted in June 2022 in Poland within the international electronic warfare exercises. Designed jammer demonstrators, with a maximum bandwidth of 115 MHz, were used as illuminators of opportunity and made it possible to test the operation of passive radars with five signal types (within two bands—L‐band and S‐band) for military targets (i.e. fighters, transport planes, helicopters). In the first part of the article, detection, ISAR imaging and tracking issues will be addressed. The second part of the article will focus on the results obtained during the project's joint field trials.

Analysing the European Defence Fund’s financing distribution across EU countries: what drives national participation in defence-industrial integration projects?

The establishment of the European Defence Fund (EDF) marks a significant shift in how EU Member States approach the integration of the defence industry as it aims to systematically promote inter-European defence-industrial cooperation across national defence sectors. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence of the actual dynamics regarding EDF implementation. While there are accounts of EU countries’ varying political positions on defence integration, including its industrial aspect, it remains unclear whether Member States’ actual participation in integration projects aligns with these positions. Are national motives consistent once effective defenceindustrial integration is underway? The findings, based on Masson’s (2024) data on by-country distribution of EDF project financing (2021–2022), present a more nuanced picture of EU countries’ effective engagement with defence-industrial integration than anticipated by the political perspective. While there is a positive relationship between participation in the EDF and defence market size, strategic culture does not influence EU members’ involvement in the Fund. Furthermore, while liberal economicindustrial governance is negatively associated with national participation in EDF projects, a country’s institutional quality has a significant positive relationship with it. This article reveals more complex dynamics of EDF implementation than suggested by the political perspective on defence-industrial integration pre-EDF.

Analyzing the European Union’s CSDP and the evolution of European security and defense training at the ESDC: prospects and pathways

ABSTRACT This article presents a thorough examination of the European Union’s Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) in comparison with the educational programs offered by the European Security and Defense College (ESDC), with a specific focus on the High-Level CSDP Course. We conducted a comprehensive analysis using a meta-synthesis research approach. Our research commenced with a Systematic Literature Review and was further validated through a qualitative case study, which included interviews with the 2023 high-Level CSDP course participants. Our research findings highlight the need to prioritize emerging topics such as climate security and identify new areas in cyber and space domains to potentially expand the CSDP. We emphasized the importance of developing strategic approaches to facilitate the dissemination of comprehensive CSDP knowledge generated by the ESDC to higher education institutions. This initiative aims to equip future EU leaders with the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively engage in CSDP-related matters.

Drivers and Impact of European Defence Market Integration: A Literature Meta-Synthesis with Economic Focus

ABSTRACT The Ukraine war, the aftermath of COVID-19, Brexit and shifting US geostrategic interests are putting pressure on the European defence situation, strategy and budgets. The current crises expose warfare capability gaps in the European armed forces and capacity constraints of the European defence industry after decades of the peace dividend. More nations are calling for stronger engagement of the EU in the defence sector to overcome these challenges and complete the European defence sector integration that started in the late 1990s. It is estimated that more cooperation in defence procurement and research could save up to 30% of the current €290 bn total EU27 defence budgets. Can this combination of recent factors provide new impulses towards a unified European defence market, more cooperation on defence procurement and industry consolidation? We conducted a literature review (‘meta-synthesis’) of 172 journal articles, studies and think-tank papers since 1995 to build a holistic picture. The analysis aims to describe the progress and challenges of European defence market integration from an economic viewpoint. It provides future researchers with a basic understanding of defence industrial challenges, motivations and economic drivers of European defence integration as well as of reasons for resistance and potential scenarios.

Herausforderungen einer neuen Sicherheitslage für Deutschland – eine finanzwissenschaftliche Perspektive

Abstract This article addresses the challenges of the new security situation that Germany faces against the background of current geopolitical conflicts and the potential weakening of US security guarantees for Europe. The article counteracts the widespread idea that more money and more soldiers are necessary and automatically lead to an increase in military power. Instead, the article argue that the financial resources spent on the military sector need to be used more efficiently. The article discusses reform options that concern different fields, e.g. the organisation of military defence in Europe, the procurement of military equipment and the recruiting of soldiers.

THE MUTLISTAKEHOLDER INITIATIVE APPROACH TO EUROPEAN CRISIS MANAGEMENT. CIVILIAN CSDP AND ENGAGEMENT WITH LOCAL NONSTATE ACTORS

: The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) missions are deployed in complex operational environments, where a plethora of national, regional and international actors are present. These present circumstances enable the existence of an - either direct or indirect - but inexorable engagement between all stakeholders involved in similar activities. While the vast majority of current debates and research focus solely on the cooperative dimension of the CSDP in the framework of multilateralism and regionalism, the topic of the EU's engagement with local stakeholders is scarcely explored. Therefore, drawing on the multistakeholder initiative approach (MSI) in economic theory, this paper assesses the engagement of CSDP missions with civil societies and private sector entities in theatres of operations. Employing a single case study approach of inquiry, consisting of the EUCAP Somalia mission this paper aims at answering the research questions: how does EUCAP Somalia engage with local non-state actors, what are the opportunities associated with this engagement and to what extent can a MSI approach be implemented by EUCAP Somalia?By deploying a qualitative research design, this paper uses document analysis within a single case study approach of inquiry. The results of this approach show two distinct tendencies. While EUCAP Somalia informally engages with local non-state actors, this engagement is rather insufficient. Results of this research further show that CSDP missions represent an important tool of EU diplomacy and their engagement with local non-state actors positively impacts the implementation of two of their core principles: local ownership and human security.

REGIONAL COOPERATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

The paper systematically reviews ten years of academic literature published from 2014 to 2023 and indexed in the Scopus database to establish the current state-of-the-art on how Central European regional groups operate. The review includes 52 publications on six regional cooperation formats: the Central European Defence Cooperation, the Slavkov/Austerlitz Triangle, the Salzburg Forum, the Three Seas Initiative, the Visegrád Group and the Bucharest Nine. The paper finds that regional cooperation research is very concentrated on selected aspects of Visegrád cooperation and follows poor methodological reporting practices. The majority of studies analyse the V4 in relation to migration and foreign policy issues, whereas research on cooperation dynamics in other policy areas and within other active regional groups is marginal. After identifying promising future research directions, the paper calls for greater methodological and topical diversity in Central European regional cooperation research.

The Influence of a New Geopolitical Environment on the Peace and Security of the Western Balkans

Trends in the EU and NATO are certainly a part of global international efforts and communications along with being integral parts of the actions of those progressive forces that strive towards global peace, security, and social progress. Therefore, European trends cannot be taken out of the global context of international relationships or any other efforts to make positive changes in the world. The countries of the Western Balkans are faced with important political, economic, and security challenges, and should support one another in the process of their accessions to the EU and NATO and create the necessary conditions for the development of a better European defense and security relevant as regards the security interests of NATO. As part of democracy and humanity, their friends should help in the building of a safer geopolitical environment. In the search of a better solution, it is recommended to focus on the values and goals of all citizens and peoples of the Western Balkans. This primarily includes dignified living in a modern, prosperous, and democratic country. A country of this kind in the Western Balkans can exist only by being fully integrated in the European and global organisations and by respecting contemporary global standards. The future of the countries of the Western Balkans cannot rely on negative, narrow-minded concepts or approaches. Their future should be founded on universal human values. And not only the future of the Western Balkans, but the entire region where it is situated. All of us should understand that happiness and prosperity of one people in this region should not be built upon the misfortune of others.