Defensive Players Research Articles

Sports Injuries in Wheelchair Rugby - A Pilot Study.

The aim of the study was to analyze etiology and the incidence of sports injuries among wheelchair rugby players. Moreover, we verified if the levels of aggressiveness and anger presented by the athletes and their roles in the team influenced the incidence and severity of the injuries. The study involved 14 male players, members of the Polish National Wheelchair Rugby Team. During a 9-month period, the athletes participated in up to 9 training camps and 4 Wheelchair Rugby tournaments. The study was based on the Competitive Aggressiveness and Anger Scale, registry of sports injuries consulted and non-consulted with a physician and a demographic questionnaire. The following observations were made during the 9-month period corresponding to a mean of 25 training and tournament days: 1) wheelchair rugby players experienced primarily minor injuries (n=102) that did not require a medical intervention, 2) only four injuries needed to be consulted by a physician, 3) sports injuries occurred more frequently among offensive players than in defensive players, 4) offensive players showed a tendency to higher levels of anger and aggressiveness than defensive players. It can be concluded that wheelchair rugby is a discipline associated with a high incidence of minor injuries that do not require a medical intervention. The incidence rate of injuries during the analyzed period was 0.3 per athlete per training day.

Effect of exercises vehicle (proposed ) to develop some level of physical abilities and rules for defensive players in football

Effect of exercises vehicle (proposed ) to develop some level of physical abilities and rules for defensive players in football

Atrial natriuretic peptide down-regulates LPS/ATP-mediated IL-1β release by inhibiting NF-kB, NLRP3 inflammasome and caspase-1 activation in THP-1 cells.

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is an hormone/paracrine/autocrine factor regulating cardiovascular homeostasis by guanylyl cyclase natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR-1). ANP plays an important role also in regulating inflammatory and immune systems by altering macrophages functions and cytokines secretion. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in a wide range of biological responses, including the immunological one. Unlike other cytokines, IL-1β production is rigorously controlled. Primarily, NF-kB activation is required to produce pro-IL-1β; subsequently, NALP3 inflammasome/caspase-1 activation is required to cleave pro-IL-1β into the active secreted protein. NALP3 is a molecular platform capable of sensing a large variety of signals and a major player in innate immune defense. Due to their pleiotropism, IL-1β and NALP3 dysregulation is a common feature of a wide range of diseases. Therefore, identifying molecules regulating IL-1β/NALP3/caspase-1 expression is an important step in the development of new potential therapeutic agents. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of ANP on IL-1β/NALP3/caspase-1 expression in LPS/ATP-stimulated human THP1 monocytes. We provided new evidence of the direct involvement of ANP/NPR-1/cGMP axis on NF-kB/NALP3/caspase-1-mediated IL-1β release and NF-kB-mediated pro-IL-1β production. In particular, ANP inhibited both NF-kB and NALP3/caspase-1 activation leading to pro- and mature IL-1β down-regulation. Our data, pointing out a modulatory role of this endogenous peptide on IL-1β release and on NF-kB/NALP3/caspase-1 activation, indicate an important anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effect of ANP via these mechanisms. We suggest a possible employment of ANP for the treatment of inflammatory/immune-related diseases and IL-1β/NALP3-associated disorders, affecting millions of people worldwide.

Activating KIRs and NKG2C in Viral Infections: Toward NK Cell Memory?

Natural killer (NK) cells are important players in the immune defense against viral infections. The contribution of activating killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) and CD94/NKG2C in regulating anti-viral responses has recently emerged. Thus, in the hematopoietic stem cell transplantation setting, the presence of donor activating KIRs (aKIRs) may protect against viral infections, while in HIV-infected individuals, KIR3DS1, in combination with HLA-Bw4-I80, results in reduction of viral progression. Since, studies have been performed mainly at the genetic or transcriptional level, the effective size, the function, and the “licensing” status of NK cells expressing aKIRs, as well as the nature of their viral ligands, require further investigation. Certain viral infections, mainly due to Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), can deeply influence the NK cell development and function by inducing a marked expansion of mature NKG2C+ NK cells expressing self-activating KIRs. This suggests that NKG2C and/or aKIRs are involved in the selective proliferation of this subset. The persistent, HCMV-induced, imprinting suggests that NK cells may display unexpected adaptive immune traits. The role of aKIRs and NKG2C in regulating NK cell responses and promoting a memory-like response to certain viruses is discussed.

Dermal white adipose tissue: a new component of the thermogenic response

Recent literature suggests that the layer of adipocytes embedded in the skin below the dermis is far from being an inert spacer material. Instead, this layer of dermal white adipose tissue (dWAT) is a regulated lipid layer that comprises a crucial environmental defense. Among all the classes of biological molecules, lipids have the lowest thermal conductance and highest insulation potential. This property can be exploited by mammals to reduce heat loss, suppress brown adipose tissue activation, reduce the activation of thermogenic programs, and increase metabolic efficiency. Furthermore, this layer responds to bacterial challenge to provide a physical barrier and antimicrobial disinfection, and its expansion supports the growth of hair follicles and regenerating skin. In sum, this dWAT layer is a key defensive player with remarkable potential for modifying systemic metabolism, immune function, and physiology. In this review, we discuss the key literature illustrating the properties of this recently recognized adipose depot.

ROS-induced nanotherapeutic approach for ovarian cancer treatment based on the combinatorial effect of photodynamic therapy and DJ-1 gene suppression

This study represents a novel approach for intraoperative ovarian cancer treatment based on the combinatorial effect of a targeted photodynamic therapy (PDT) associated with suppression of the DJ-1 protein, one of the key players in the ROS defense of cancer cells. To assess the potential of the developed therapy, dendrimer-based nanoplatforms for cancer-targeted delivery of near-infrared photosensitizer, phthalocyanine, and DJ-1 siRNA have been constructed. In vitro studies revealed that therapeutic efficacy of the combinatorial approach was enhanced when compared to PDT alone and this enhancement was more pronounced in ovarian carcinoma cells, which are characterized by higher basal levels of DJ-1 protein. Moreover, the ovarian cancer tumors exposed to a single dose of combinatorial therapy were completely eradicated from the mice and the treated animals showed no evidence of cancer recurrence. Thus, the developed therapeutic approach can be potentially employed intraoperatively to eradicate unresactable cancer cells. From the Clinical EditorThe complete clearance of microscopic residual tumor cells during excision surgery is important to improve survival of the patient. In this interesting paper, the authors developed a novel approach using targeted photodynamic therapy (PDT), combining a photosensitizer, phthalocyanine, and DJ-1 siRNA for the treatment of ovarian cancer. The data showed that this approach increased cancer cell killing and may pave way for future clinical studies.

Performance Feedback Does Not Eliminate the Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Evidence From Professional Football

Empirical studies on the influence of sunk costs in high stakes decisions have come to mixed conclusions. As observational studies have primarily used professional sports labor markets, we analyze the effect of sunk costs, player compensation, on the labor utilization of defensive players in the National Football League (NFL). Our analysis has several advantages. First, we measure the direct impact of increased financial commitment. Second, we analyze the effect of sunk costs when firms have accurate and abundant performance feedback; therefore, our conclusions are not driven by uncertainty. Finally, we control for possible endogeneity by using the exogenous variation in compensation generated when players become eligible for free agency or change teams. Our results indicate sunk costs are significant determinants of player utilization. A 15 % increase in compensation has an equivalent effect on playing time as an increase of five to eleven solo tackles, one to two interceptions and two to five and a half sacks in the previous season for linebackers, defensive backs and defensive linemen respectively. Furthermore, the sunk-cost fallacy is persistent throughout the entire career of an average NFL player.

Outcomes of Lisfranc Injuries in the National Football League

Objectives:Tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc) joint injuries commonly occur in American professional football competition; however, the career impact of these injuries is unknown. This study aims to define the time to return to competition for professional football players who sustained Lisfranc injuries and to quantify their effect on athletic performance.Methods:Data on National Football League (NFL) players who sustained a Lisfranc injury during a ten-year time period (2000-2010) were collected for analysis. Recorded demographic variables included age, experience, position, and operative vs. non-operative management. Outcomes data collected for offensive players (running backs, wide receivers, tight ends) included time to return to competition and yearly total yards and touchdowns. Outcomes data collected for defensive players (defensive linemen, linebackers, defensive backs) included time to return to competition and yearly total tackles, sacks, and interceptions. Offensive power ratings (OPR=total yards/10 + total touchdowns x6) and defensive power ratings (DPR=total tackles + total sacks x2 + total interceptions x2) were calculated for the injury season and for 3 seasons before and after the injury season. Offensive and defensive control groups consisted of all players of similar positions without an identified Lisfranc injury that competed in the 2005 season.Results:Lisfranc injuries were identified in 28 NFL athletes in the study period, including 11 offensive players and 17 defensive players. While 2 of 28 (7.1%) players never returned to the NFL, the remaining 26 (92.9%) athletes returned to competition at a median 11.1 (interquartile range: 10.3-12.5) months from time of injury and missed a median 8.5 (6.3-13.0) NFL regular season games. Players treated non-operatively were noted to have an earlier return to play with a median absence from play of 6.2 (1.9-10.7) months and 7.0 (4.5-8.0) games compared to those treated operatively who returned after a median 11.6 (10.7-12.6) months (p=0.02) and 10.0 (7.0-13.3) games missed (p=0.09). Analysis of pre- and post-injury athletic performance revealed no statistically significant changes following return to sport after Lisfranc injury. The magnitude of change in median OPR for 3 seasons prior to index season compared to 3 seasons after index season observed in the Lisfranc-injured offensive study group, -34.8 (-64.4-1.4), was greater than that observed in the offensive control group, -18.8 (-52.9-31.5); however, these differences did not reach statistical significance (p=0.33). Similarly, the magnitude of change observed in the Lisfranc-injured defensive study group, -13.5 (-30.9-4.3), was greater than that observed in the defensive control group, -5.0 (-22.0-14.0); however, these differences also did not reach statistical significance (p=0.21).Conclusion:Greater than 90% of NFL athletes who sustained Lisfranc injuries returned to play in the NFL at a median 11.1 months from time of injury. Operative treatment was associated with a longer time to return; however, this is a potential surrogate for greater injury severity. Offensive and defensive players experienced a decrease in performance after return from injury that did not reach statistical significance when compared to their respective control groups over a similar time period.

Defining the functional states of Th17 cells.

The molecular mechanisms governing T helper (Th) cell differentiation and function have revealed a complex network of transcriptional and protein regulators. Cytokines not only initiate the differentiation of CD4 Th cells into subsets but also influence the identity, plasticity and effector function of a T cell. Of the subsets, Th17 cells, named for producing interleukin 17 (IL-17) as their signature cytokine, secrete a cohort of other cytokines, including IL-22, IL-21, IL-10, IL-9, IFNγ, and GM-CSF. In recent years, Th17 cells have emerged as key players in host defense against both extracellular pathogens and fungal infections, but they have also been implicated as one of the main drivers in the pathogenesis of autoimmunity, likely mediated in part by the cytokines that they produce. Advances in high throughput genomic sequencing have revealed unexpected heterogeneity in Th17 cells and, as a consequence, may have tremendous impact on our understanding of their functional diversity. The assortment in gene expression may also identify different functional states of Th17 cells. This review aims to understand the interplay between the cytokine regulators that drive Th17 cell differentiation and functional states in Th17 cells.

Analyzing the Functions of Mast Cells <em>In Vivo</em> Using '<em>Mast Cell Knock-in</em>' Mice

Mast cells (MCs) are hematopoietic cells which reside in various tissues, and are especially abundant at sites exposed to the external environment, such as skin, airways and gastrointestinal tract. Best known for their detrimental role in IgE-dependent allergic reactions, MCs have also emerged as important players in host defense against venom and invading bacteria and parasites. MC phenotype and function can be influenced by microenvironmental factors that may differ according to anatomic location and/or based on the type or stage of development of immune responses. For this reason, we and others have favored in vivo approaches over in vitro methods to gain insight into MC functions. Here, we describe methods for the generation of mouse bone marrow-derived cultured MCs (BMCMCs), their adoptive transfer into genetically MC-deficient mice, and the analysis of the numbers and distribution of adoptively transferred MCs at different anatomical sites. This method, named the 'mast cell knock-in' approach, has been extensively used over the past 30 years to assess the functions of MCs and MC-derived products in vivo. We discuss the advantages and limitations of this method, in light of alternative approaches that have been developed in recent years.

The STING of inflammation (INM2P.356)

Abstract Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING, a.k.a. MPYS, TMEM173) is a critical intracellular transducer of innate immune signals induced by cytosolic DNA. Activation of STING drives both apoptosis and production of type 1 interferon (IFN1). Thus STING is a vital defensive player on the front line of innate immunity to infectious agents. Recent studies have suggested that STING may also be activated by host-derived DNA, particularly in the context of reduced nuclease activity, and could play a role in autoimmune processes. We hypothesize that during inflammation STING can be activated by host-derived DNA acting as a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP). To begin to address this role of STING, we utilized multiple models of in vivo sterile inflammation. Our studies demonstrate that STING-deficient animals have reduced inflammatory responses and more rapid resolution of sterile acute lung injury (ALI) and peritonitis. Further, using in vitro and in vivo models we found that STING plays a role in responses to infiltrating neutrophils and neutrophil-derived debris. Studies to be presented support a model wherein STING is activated by host-derived cellular components, such as DNA, and drives production of type 1 interferon and cell death. Ultimately this exacerbates tissue damage, driving a vicious cycle serving to amplify and perpetuate inflammation.

Green leaf volatiles: biosynthesis, biological functions and their applications in biotechnology.

Plants have evolved numerous constitutive and inducible defence mechanisms to cope with biotic and abiotic stresses. These stresses induce the expression of various genes to activate defence-related pathways that result in the release of defence chemicals. One of these defence mechanisms is the oxylipin pathway, which produces jasmonates, divinylethers and green leaf volatiles (GLVs) through the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). GLVs have recently emerged as key players in plant defence, plant-plant interactions and plant-insect interactions. Some GLVs inhibit the growth and propagation of plant pathogens, including bacteria, viruses and fungi. In certain cases, GLVs released from plants under herbivore attack can serve as aerial messengers to neighbouring plants and to attract parasitic or parasitoid enemies of the herbivores. The plants that perceive these volatile signals are primed and can then adapt in preparation for the upcoming challenges. Due to their 'green note' odour, GLVs impart aromas and flavours to many natural foods, such as vegetables and fruits, and therefore, they can be exploited in industrial biotechnology. The aim of this study was to review the progress and recent developments in research on the oxylipin pathway, with a specific focus on the biosynthesis and biological functions of GLVs and their applications in industrial biotechnology.

Assimetria bilateral no torque isocinético do joelho e tornozelo em jogadores de futebol da categoria sub 20

Bilateral asymmetries and muscle imbalances are associated with increased risk for lower limb injuries and still seem to imply in athletes performance. This study aimed to analyze bilateral asymmetry of soccer players in age category below 20 years old (peak torque and conventional and functional reason in extensor/flexors of knee and inverter/ eversion of ankle) and to compare these variables between defending, midfield and attacker players. The study included 22 athletes in age category below 20, which underwent a five maximal isokinetic testing with repetitions at 180°/s for knee and 120°/s for ankle, both concentric and eccentric actions. T test for dependent data was used to compare values of torque between dominant and non-dominant limbs and one-way ANOVA was used to compare neuromuscular variables between players of different positions, both at p 0.05). It was found that defensive players had eccentric torque values of extensors knee higher than midfield players (p <0.05). Defensive players exhibit greater eccentric torque of knee extensor muscles compared to midfield players. It can be concluded that the analyzed soccer players did not present bilateral asymmetries in flexor/extensor knee muscles neither in inverter/eversion ankle muscles.

Factors influencing physical and technical variability in the English Premier League.

To investigate match-to-match variability of physical and technical performances in English Premier League players and quantify the influence of positional and contextual factors. Match data (N = 451) were collected using a multicamera computerized tracking system across multiple seasons (2005-06 to 2012-13). The coefficient of variation (CV) was calculated from match to match for physical and technical performances in selected positions across different match contexts (location, standard, and result). Wide midfielders demonstrated the greatest CVs for total distance (4.9% ± 5.9%) and central midfielders the smallest (3.6% ± 2.0%); nevertheless, all positions exhibited CVs <5% (P > .05, effect size [ES] 0.1-0.3). Central defenders demonstrated the greatest CVs and wide midfielders the lowest for both high-intensity running (20.2% ± 8.8% and 13.7% ± 7.7%, P < .05, ES 0.4-0.8) and sprint distance (32.3% ± 13.8% and 22.6% ± 11.2%, P < .05, ES 0.5-0.8). Technical indicators such as tackles (83.7% ± 42.3%), possessions won (47.2% ± 27.9%), and interceptions (59.1% ± 37.3%) illustrated substantial variability for attackers compared with all other positions (P < .05, ES 0.4-1.1). Central defenders demonstrated large variability for the number of times tackled per match (144.9% ± 58.3%) and passes attempted and received compared with other positions (39.2% ± 17.5% and 46.9% ± 20.2%, P < .001, ES 0.6-1.8). Contextual factors had limited impact on the variability of physical and technical parameters. The data demonstrate that technical parameters varied more from match to match than physical parameters. Defensive players (fullbacks and central defenders) displayed higher CVs for offensive technical variables, while attacking players (attackers and wide midfielders) exhibited higher CVs for defensive technical variables. Physical and technical performances are variable per se regardless of context.

AHL-priming functions via oxylipin and salicylic acid.

Collaborative action between the host plant and associated bacteria is crucial for the establishment of an efficient interaction. In bacteria, the synchronized behavior of a population is often achieved by a density-dependent communication called quorum sensing. This behavior is based on signaling molecules, which influence bacterial gene expression. N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) are such molecules in many Gram-negative bacteria. Moreover, some AHLs are responsible for the beneficial effect of bacteria on plants, for example the long chain N-3-oxo-tetradecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (oxo-C14-HSL) can prime Arabidopsis and barley plants for an enhanced defense. This AHL-induced resistance phenomenon, named AHL-priming, was observed in several independent laboratories during the last two decades. Very recently, the mechanism of priming with oxo-C14-HSL was shown to depend on an oxylipin and salicylic acid (SA). SA is a key element in plant defense, it accumulates during different plant resistance responses and is the base of systemic acquired resistance. In addition, SA itself can prime plants for an enhanced resistance against pathogen attack. On the other side, oxylipins, including jasmonic acid (JA) and related metabolites, are lipid-derived signaling compounds. Especially the oxidized fatty acid derivative cis-OPDA, which is the precursor of JA, is a newly described player in plant defense. Unlike the antagonistic effect of SA and JA in plant–microbe interactions, the recently described pathway functions through a synergistic effect of oxylipins and SA, and is independent of the JA signaling cascade. Interestingly, the oxo-C14-HSL-induced oxylipin/SA signaling pathway induces stomata defense responses and cell wall strengthening thus prevents pathogen invasion. In this review, we summarize the findings on AHL-priming and the related signaling cascade. In addition, we discuss the potential of AHL-induced resistance in new strategies of plant protection.

Examining the Impact of Helmet Orientation Visual Cues on the Passing Effectiveness of Quarterbacks in American Football

Defensive secondary players have long been instructed to “read the quarterback's eyes” in order to anticipate where a pass will be thrown. Where identifying quarterback gaze point is not feasible, head orientation becomes the primary indicator of a quarterback's intended passing target. Helmet stripes and logos may therefore provide visual cues to defensive players that inadvertently aid defensive players in determining the intended passing target. This paper presents the first comprehensive analysis of passing statistics from college football to examine the associations among head orientation cues provided by helmet styles and quarterback performance metrics. Five years of passing data (2009-2013) were analyzed from all 120 teams in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). For this assessment, helmets were grouped into two categories – No Stripe (referent) and Stripe. Multiple measures of passing performance were used to compare helmet categories including: completion percentage (CP), interceptions per year, interceptions per passing attempt (IPA), Total Quarterback Rating (QBR) and Pass Expected Points Added (EPA). Negative outcomes were determined based on 25th/75th percentiles for the overall group. Least mean squares were used to test for differences among non-parametric variables. Using the percentile cut points, the crude odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated to determine the association of helmet categories with each outcome. FBS Year 2013 data represented the most significant findings. The odds of having a high IPA among teams with a helmet stripe was 2.4 times (95% CI: 1.01, 5.90) the odds of having a high IPA among teams without a helmet stripe (p<0.05). Similarly, teams with a striped helmet had a higher IPI (OR: 2.15, 95% CI: 0.91, 5.08; p=0.08). Results in other years did not reach statistical significance and findings were mostly null. The findings suggest a recent trend toward significance among interception-related metrics. Future work will identify factors under which the effects of helmet orientation visual cues may be more pronounced.

The Psychological Profile of Youth Male Soccer Players in Different Playing Positions

The purpose of this study was to investigate selected psychological skills of male youth soccer players in different playing positions. This study examined possible positional differences of 180 male youth Tunisian soccer players between the ages of 15 and 19 years old from different clubs of 1st and 3rd Youth Class divisions. The subjects were divided into three playing positions, namely, forward (n = 60), midfield (n = 60) and defense (n = 60), and compared with regard to twelve psychological skills measured by means of the Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Tool (OMSAT-3) of Durand Bush et al. (2001). Results yielded significant differences between basic and psychosomatic subscale scores of the players in different playing positions. Forward players consistently outperformed the other positional groups in motivation, confidence and activation. Defense players outperformed the other positional groups in relaxation, while midfield players showed the lowest psychological skill levels. The results of the study provided support for the hypothesis that positional differences in terms of psychological skills existed. More specifically, statistical evidence suggested that youth soccer players could be differentiated as a function of psychological skill and the position that they played on the team.

NK cells and interferons

The role of Natural Killer cells in host defense against infections as well as in tumour surveillance has been widely appreciated for a number of years. Upon recognition of “altered” cells, NK cells release the content of cytolytic granules, leading to the death of target cells. Moreover, NK cells are powerful producers of chemokines and cytokines, particularly Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), of which they are the earliest source upon a variety of infections. Despite being armed to fight against pathogens, NK cells become fully functional upon an initial phase of activation that requires the action of several cytokines, including type I IFNs. Type I IFNs are now recognized as key players in antiviral defense and immune regulation, and evidences from both mouse models of disease and in vitro studies support the existence of an alliance between type I IFNs and NK cells to ensure effective protection against viral infections.This review will focus on the role of type I IFNs in regulating NK cell functions to elicit antiviral response and on NK cell-produced IFN-γ beneficial and pathological effects.

Pectoralis Major Ruptures in Professional American Football Players

Background: Pectoralis major injuries are an infrequent shoulder injury that can result in pain, weakness, and deformity. These injuries may occur during the course of an athletic competition, including football. The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of pectoralis major ruptures in professional football players and time lost from the sport following injury. We hypothesized that ruptures most frequently occur during bench-press strength training. Methods: The National Football League Injury Surveillance System was reviewed for all pectoralis major injuries in all players from 2000 to 2010. Details regarding injury setting, player demographics, method of treatment, and time lost were recorded. Results: A total of 10 injuries—complete ruptures—were identified during this period. Five of the 10 were sustained in defensive players, generally while tackling. Nine occurred during game situations, and 1 occurred during practice. Specific data pertinent to the practice injury was not available. No rupture occurred during weight lifting. Eight ruptures were treated operatively, and 2 cases did not report the method of definitive treatment. The average days lost was 111 days (range, 42–189). The incidence was 0.004 pectoralis major ruptures during the 11-year study period. Conclusions: Pectoralis major injuries are uncommon while playing football. In the National Football League, these injuries primarily occur not during practice or while bench pressing but rather during games. When pectoralis major ruptures do occur, they are successfully treated operatively. Surgery may allow for return to full sports participation. Level of Evidence: IV, case series.

Lactoferrin, all roads lead to Rome.

Lactoferrin is an iron-binding cationic glycoprotein that is constitutively synthesized by exocrine glands and by neutrophils. Its biosynthesis can be markedly A picture taken of a statue in Rome showing how Romulus and Remus are being nursed back to health by la Lupa Capitolina. Milk is an excellent source of lactoferrin, a protein with many health benefits increased during infection and inflammation. This multifunctional protein also acts as a major player in host defense in bodily fluids while it simultaneously protects the human mucosa. Several functions of lactoferrin are dependent on its ability to avidly bind two ferric ions in two characteristic binding sites while other biological activities do not require this property and they are mediated by other parts of the protein. In particular, the highly basic N-terminal regions of human and bovine lactoferrin seem to play an important role in the antimicrobial and immuno-regulatory properties of the protein, which can be emulated to some extent by using synthetic peptide derivatives that resemble this region. From the 1960s onward, when the protein was first purified from milk, the number of scientific publications concerning its biochemical properties, the various biological functions and the potential therapeutic applications of lactoferrin and its bioactive peptides has significantly increased. This research area is regularly being reviewed and the reader may wish to consult some of these contributions to gain an entry into the field (Valenti et al. 2004; Lonnerdal 2009; Baker and Baker 2012; Vogel 2012). Currently a Pubmed search in the NCBI Medline database identifies almost 7,000 publications for this topic and this number increases by about 300 publications each year. In particular the potential for therapeutic or health-promoting applications of lactoferrin has led to a sustained research effort in this area. P. Valenti (&) Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy e-mail: piera.valenti@uniroma1.it