Defence Exports Research Articles

Defense Export Strategies to Civil War Countries in Latin America

This study aims to obtain key strategies by analyzing Matrix based on the SWOT analysis of internal and external environmental factors of Colombia and Peru that are the civil war countries in Latin America. This study presented a strategy for expanding defense exports to Colombia and Peru, which is emerging as a new defense export market. It is because there will be a demand for introducing a new weapon system as these countries in Central and South America are still experiencing civil war. In fact, it is somewhat difficult to develop a new export market, so it was investigated that Colombia and Peru were also found as the countries which have exported defense products to South Korea. In order to analyze the expansion strategy of defense exports to Colombia and Peru, the status of the economic and defense industries of the two countries was checked. Based on internal and external environmental factors, four factors were analyzed: strength (S), weakness (W), opportunity (O), and threat (T). Matrix analysis was performed through these four factors, and the key strategy was derived as follows. Firstly, in order to strengthen the sales and support system between governments, it will be necessary to perform indirect offset, use the sales system between governments, actively participate in enterprise-based business and pursue government's active defense policy. Secondly, in order to improve and develop the weapon system, it is necessary to increase the demand for additional follow-up support, to reinforce and improve the new weapon system, to promote the transfer of old and surplus weapon systems, and to prepare for an increase in the additional requirements of the weapons purchaser countries. Thirdly, it will be necessary to establish a foothold to advance into the Latin American market and strengthen the organization dedicated to exporting defense products in the local region and South Korea, to further improve international trade, and actively promote domestic weapons systems in order to establish a quick information infrastructure in a local area and strengthen the dedicated personnel.

The new post-Cold War arms market: competition, regulation and Europeanisation

‘This important book provides a comprehensive and much-needed analysis of French defence export policy, the first of its kind in more than 30 years. Lucie Béraud-Sudreau skilfully reconstructs the policy deliberations during the post-Cold War era, in the process shedding light on France's understanding of strategic autonomy. Her book will be essential reading for any observer of French defence policy.’Professor François Heisbourg, Senior Advisor for Europe, IISS‘French Arms Exports: The Business of Sovereignty is poised to become the go-to resource on the contemporary French arms trade. Not since the 1970s has there been such a carefully researched, historically rich and politically knowledgeable book about the French arms trade, and Béraud-Sudreau ably brings us from the Cold War to the modern day, using a wealth of original interview evidence. In doing so, she also offers important insights into the sources of continuity in French arms exports, amidst great political, economic and military change.’Jennifer L. Erickson, author of Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation and Associate Professor of Political Science at Boston College‘This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to understand French defence-export policy and its foundation in the broader policy conception of strategic autonomy. Taking a systematic deep dive, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau not only elaborates upon the relevant actors and internal power dynamics in the policy process, she also analyses the changes in policies and outcomes when France had to react to a shifting European and global political and industrial landscape.’Dr Christian Mölling, Deputy Director, German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP)Ever since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has believed its strategic independence to be predicated on self-sufficiency in modern weapons. In order to maintain the requisite defence-industrial base, in the context of limited domestic orders, successive governments have prioritised the export of French arms on a large scale.In this Adelphi book, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau provides a detailed, behind-the-scenes examination of the institutional arrangements that have underpinned France's relatively liberal approach to arms sales over the years. The narrative begins during the Cold War, when France offered customers an alternative to reliance on one of the superpowers for their arms purchases, and then charts how the French arms-export system has responded to international political developments and dramatic changes in the global arms market. The book shows that, in general, France's leaders and machinery of government have been resistant to the notion of restraining arms sales. It also looks to the future, arguing that France now faces a dilemma over whether to maintain its traditional course or accept a greater degree of export restraint as part of closer armaments cooperation with European partners.Lucie Béraud-Sudreau is Senior Researcher and Director of the Arms and Military Expenditure Programme at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Sweden.

The ambiguity of French arms-export policy in the post-Cold War era

‘This important book provides a comprehensive and much-needed analysis of French defence export policy, the first of its kind in more than 30 years. Lucie Béraud-Sudreau skilfully reconstructs the policy deliberations during the post-Cold War era, in the process shedding light on France's understanding of strategic autonomy. Her book will be essential reading for any observer of French defence policy.’Professor François Heisbourg, Senior Advisor for Europe, IISS‘French Arms Exports: The Business of Sovereignty is poised to become the go-to resource on the contemporary French arms trade. Not since the 1970s has there been such a carefully researched, historically rich and politically knowledgeable book about the French arms trade, and Béraud-Sudreau ably brings us from the Cold War to the modern day, using a wealth of original interview evidence. In doing so, she also offers important insights into the sources of continuity in French arms exports, amidst great political, economic and military change.’Jennifer L. Erickson, author of Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation and Associate Professor of Political Science at Boston College‘This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to understand French defence-export policy and its foundation in the broader policy conception of strategic autonomy. Taking a systematic deep dive, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau not only elaborates upon the relevant actors and internal power dynamics in the policy process, she also analyses the changes in policies and outcomes when France had to react to a shifting European and global political and industrial landscape.’Dr Christian Mölling, Deputy Director, German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP)Ever since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has believed its strategic independence to be predicated on self-sufficiency in modern weapons. In order to maintain the requisite defence-industrial base, in the context of limited domestic orders, successive governments have prioritised the export of French arms on a large scale.In this Adelphi book, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau provides a detailed, behind-the-scenes examination of the institutional arrangements that have underpinned France's relatively liberal approach to arms sales over the years. The narrative begins during the Cold War, when France offered customers an alternative to reliance on one of the superpowers for their arms purchases, and then charts how the French arms-export system has responded to international political developments and dramatic changes in the global arms market. The book shows that, in general, France's leaders and machinery of government have been resistant to the notion of restraining arms sales. It also looks to the future, arguing that France now faces a dilemma over whether to maintain its traditional course or accept a greater degree of export restraint as part of closer armaments cooperation with European partners.Lucie Béraud-Sudreau is Senior Researcher and Director of the Arms and Military Expenditure Programme at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Sweden.

President Sarkozy’s stimulus package for arms exports

‘This important book provides a comprehensive and much-needed analysis of French defence export policy, the first of its kind in more than 30 years. Lucie Béraud-Sudreau skilfully reconstructs the policy deliberations during the post-Cold War era, in the process shedding light on France's understanding of strategic autonomy. Her book will be essential reading for any observer of French defence policy.’Professor François Heisbourg, Senior Advisor for Europe, IISS‘French Arms Exports: The Business of Sovereignty is poised to become the go-to resource on the contemporary French arms trade. Not since the 1970s has there been such a carefully researched, historically rich and politically knowledgeable book about the French arms trade, and Béraud-Sudreau ably brings us from the Cold War to the modern day, using a wealth of original interview evidence. In doing so, she also offers important insights into the sources of continuity in French arms exports, amidst great political, economic and military change.’Jennifer L. Erickson, author of Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation and Associate Professor of Political Science at Boston College‘This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to understand French defence-export policy and its foundation in the broader policy conception of strategic autonomy. Taking a systematic deep dive, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau not only elaborates upon the relevant actors and internal power dynamics in the policy process, she also analyses the changes in policies and outcomes when France had to react to a shifting European and global political and industrial landscape.’Dr Christian Mölling, Deputy Director, German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP)Ever since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has believed its strategic independence to be predicated on self-sufficiency in modern weapons. In order to maintain the requisite defence-industrial base, in the context of limited domestic orders, successive governments have prioritised the export of French arms on a large scale.In this Adelphi book, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau provides a detailed, behind-the-scenes examination of the institutional arrangements that have underpinned France's relatively liberal approach to arms sales over the years. The narrative begins during the Cold War, when France offered customers an alternative to reliance on one of the superpowers for their arms purchases, and then charts how the French arms-export system has responded to international political developments and dramatic changes in the global arms market. The book shows that, in general, France's leaders and machinery of government have been resistant to the notion of restraining arms sales. It also looks to the future, arguing that France now faces a dilemma over whether to maintain its traditional course or accept a greater degree of export restraint as part of closer armaments cooperation with European partners.Lucie Béraud-Sudreau is Senior Researcher and Director of the Arms and Military Expenditure Programme at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Sweden.

President Hollande: continued backing for arms sales

‘This important book provides a comprehensive and much-needed analysis of French defence export policy, the first of its kind in more than 30 years. Lucie Béraud-Sudreau skilfully reconstructs the policy deliberations during the post-Cold War era, in the process shedding light on France's understanding of strategic autonomy. Her book will be essential reading for any observer of French defence policy.’Professor François Heisbourg, Senior Advisor for Europe, IISS‘French Arms Exports: The Business of Sovereignty is poised to become the go-to resource on the contemporary French arms trade. Not since the 1970s has there been such a carefully researched, historically rich and politically knowledgeable book about the French arms trade, and Béraud-Sudreau ably brings us from the Cold War to the modern day, using a wealth of original interview evidence. In doing so, she also offers important insights into the sources of continuity in French arms exports, amidst great political, economic and military change.’Jennifer L. Erickson, author of Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation and Associate Professor of Political Science at Boston College‘This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to understand French defence-export policy and its foundation in the broader policy conception of strategic autonomy. Taking a systematic deep dive, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau not only elaborates upon the relevant actors and internal power dynamics in the policy process, she also analyses the changes in policies and outcomes when France had to react to a shifting European and global political and industrial landscape.’Dr Christian Mölling, Deputy Director, German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP)Ever since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has believed its strategic independence to be predicated on self-sufficiency in modern weapons. In order to maintain the requisite defence-industrial base, in the context of limited domestic orders, successive governments have prioritised the export of French arms on a large scale.In this Adelphi book, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau provides a detailed, behind-the-scenes examination of the institutional arrangements that have underpinned France's relatively liberal approach to arms sales over the years. The narrative begins during the Cold War, when France offered customers an alternative to reliance on one of the superpowers for their arms purchases, and then charts how the French arms-export system has responded to international political developments and dramatic changes in the global arms market. The book shows that, in general, France's leaders and machinery of government have been resistant to the notion of restraining arms sales. It also looks to the future, arguing that France now faces a dilemma over whether to maintain its traditional course or accept a greater degree of export restraint as part of closer armaments cooperation with European partners.Lucie Béraud-Sudreau is Senior Researcher and Director of the Arms and Military Expenditure Programme at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Sweden.

The policy model for French arms exports

‘This important book provides a comprehensive and much-needed analysis of French defence export policy, the first of its kind in more than 30 years. Lucie Béraud-Sudreau skilfully reconstructs the policy deliberations during the post-Cold War era, in the process shedding light on France's understanding of strategic autonomy. Her book will be essential reading for any observer of French defence policy.’Professor François Heisbourg, Senior Advisor for Europe, IISS‘French Arms Exports: The Business of Sovereignty is poised to become the go-to resource on the contemporary French arms trade. Not since the 1970s has there been such a carefully researched, historically rich and politically knowledgeable book about the French arms trade, and Béraud-Sudreau ably brings us from the Cold War to the modern day, using a wealth of original interview evidence. In doing so, she also offers important insights into the sources of continuity in French arms exports, amidst great political, economic and military change.’Jennifer L. Erickson, author of Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation and Associate Professor of Political Science at Boston College‘This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to understand French defence-export policy and its foundation in the broader policy conception of strategic autonomy. Taking a systematic deep dive, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau not only elaborates upon the relevant actors and internal power dynamics in the policy process, she also analyses the changes in policies and outcomes when France had to react to a shifting European and global political and industrial landscape.’Dr Christian Mölling, Deputy Director, German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP)Ever since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has believed its strategic independence to be predicated on self-sufficiency in modern weapons. In order to maintain the requisite defence-industrial base, in the context of limited domestic orders, successive governments have prioritised the export of French arms on a large scale.In this Adelphi book, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau provides a detailed, behind-the-scenes examination of the institutional arrangements that have underpinned France's relatively liberal approach to arms sales over the years. The narrative begins during the Cold War, when France offered customers an alternative to reliance on one of the superpowers for their arms purchases, and then charts how the French arms-export system has responded to international political developments and dramatic changes in the global arms market. The book shows that, in general, France's leaders and machinery of government have been resistant to the notion of restraining arms sales. It also looks to the future, arguing that France now faces a dilemma over whether to maintain its traditional course or accept a greater degree of export restraint as part of closer armaments cooperation with European partners.Lucie Béraud-Sudreau is Senior Researcher and Director of the Arms and Military Expenditure Programme at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Sweden.

Introduction

‘This important book provides a comprehensive and much-needed analysis of French defence export policy, the first of its kind in more than 30 years. Lucie Béraud-Sudreau skilfully reconstructs the policy deliberations during the post-Cold War era, in the process shedding light on France's understanding of strategic autonomy. Her book will be essential reading for any observer of French defence policy.’Professor François Heisbourg, Senior Advisor for Europe, IISS‘French Arms Exports: The Business of Sovereignty is poised to become the go-to resource on the contemporary French arms trade. Not since the 1970s has there been such a carefully researched, historically rich and politically knowledgeable book about the French arms trade, and Béraud-Sudreau ably brings us from the Cold War to the modern day, using a wealth of original interview evidence. In doing so, she also offers important insights into the sources of continuity in French arms exports, amidst great political, economic and military change.’Jennifer L. Erickson, author of Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation and Associate Professor of Political Science at Boston College‘This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to understand French defence-export policy and its foundation in the broader policy conception of strategic autonomy. Taking a systematic deep dive, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau not only elaborates upon the relevant actors and internal power dynamics in the policy process, she also analyses the changes in policies and outcomes when France had to react to a shifting European and global political and industrial landscape.’Dr Christian Mölling, Deputy Director, German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP)Ever since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has believed its strategic independence to be predicated on self-sufficiency in modern weapons. In order to maintain the requisite defence-industrial base, in the context of limited domestic orders, successive governments have prioritised the export of French arms on a large scale.In this Adelphi book, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau provides a detailed, behind-the-scenes examination of the institutional arrangements that have underpinned France's relatively liberal approach to arms sales over the years. The narrative begins during the Cold War, when France offered customers an alternative to reliance on one of the superpowers for their arms purchases, and then charts how the French arms-export system has responded to international political developments and dramatic changes in the global arms market. The book shows that, in general, France's leaders and machinery of government have been resistant to the notion of restraining arms sales. It also looks to the future, arguing that France now faces a dilemma over whether to maintain its traditional course or accept a greater degree of export restraint as part of closer armaments cooperation with European partners.Lucie Béraud-Sudreau is Senior Researcher and Director of the Arms and Military Expenditure Programme at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Sweden.

Conclusion

‘This important book provides a comprehensive and much-needed analysis of French defence export policy, the first of its kind in more than 30 years. Lucie Béraud-Sudreau skilfully reconstructs the policy deliberations during the post-Cold War era, in the process shedding light on France's understanding of strategic autonomy. Her book will be essential reading for any observer of French defence policy.’Professor François Heisbourg, Senior Advisor for Europe, IISS‘French Arms Exports: The Business of Sovereignty is poised to become the go-to resource on the contemporary French arms trade. Not since the 1970s has there been such a carefully researched, historically rich and politically knowledgeable book about the French arms trade, and Béraud-Sudreau ably brings us from the Cold War to the modern day, using a wealth of original interview evidence. In doing so, she also offers important insights into the sources of continuity in French arms exports, amidst great political, economic and military change.’Jennifer L. Erickson, author of Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation and Associate Professor of Political Science at Boston College‘This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to understand French defence-export policy and its foundation in the broader policy conception of strategic autonomy. Taking a systematic deep dive, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau not only elaborates upon the relevant actors and internal power dynamics in the policy process, she also analyses the changes in policies and outcomes when France had to react to a shifting European and global political and industrial landscape.’Dr Christian Mölling, Deputy Director, German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP)Ever since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has believed its strategic independence to be predicated on self-sufficiency in modern weapons. In order to maintain the requisite defence-industrial base, in the context of limited domestic orders, successive governments have prioritised the export of French arms on a large scale.In this Adelphi book, Lucie Béraud-Sudreau provides a detailed, behind-the-scenes examination of the institutional arrangements that have underpinned France's relatively liberal approach to arms sales over the years. The narrative begins during the Cold War, when France offered customers an alternative to reliance on one of the superpowers for their arms purchases, and then charts how the French arms-export system has responded to international political developments and dramatic changes in the global arms market. The book shows that, in general, France's leaders and machinery of government have been resistant to the notion of restraining arms sales. It also looks to the future, arguing that France now faces a dilemma over whether to maintain its traditional course or accept a greater degree of export restraint as part of closer armaments cooperation with European partners.Lucie Béraud-Sudreau is Senior Researcher and Director of the Arms and Military Expenditure Programme at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Sweden.

The Arab Gulf defense pivot: Defense industrial policy in a changing geostrategic context

Arab Gulf countries have been trying to set up a local defense industrial base for decades. Recently, these efforts have become much more serious due to a changing geostrategic context, local transformation, and the striving for a more active foreign policy role beyond the region. Today's Arab Gulf defense pivot rests on four pillars: broadening the traditional defense-supplier base; establishing indigenous defense industries; setting up a defense-industrial network within and beyond the region; enlarging foreign policy clout by way of defense exports, defense-material donations, and third-country defense funding. Despite progress, challenges regarding strategic and financial stability and local skill sets remain.

Anion Conducting Ionomers for Fuel Cell and Electrolyzer Applications

Electrochemical devices, such as fuel cells and electrolyzers, which operate under alkaline conditions, are of interest because they have reduced platinum usage and certain performance advantages. New and improved anion conducting membranes (AEM) have been developed. It is desirable for AEMs to have high molecular weight and low oxygen or fuel permeability. The anion conducting ionomers used to make the electrodes for fuel cells and electrolyzers share some properties with the membranes, such as chemical stability and high ionic conductivity. However, they differ from membranes in other areas such as oxygen or fuel permeability and molecular weight. In this study, the performance of a variety of anion conducting ionomers was tested in alkaline fuel cells and electrolyzers. It was found that low molecular weight ionomers gave higher initial and long-term performance. The performance was correlated with materials properties and results from impedance spectroscopy. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.

Anion Conducting Block Copolymers with Partial Fluorination and Long Side Chains

Anion Exchange Membranes (AEM) can be used in fuel cells and electrolyzers. The benefits include lowering the amount of platinum catalysts, simplifying water management, and improving electrochemical kinetics at the air cathode. However, the performance of AEMs is not as high as that of proton exchange membranes partially because of factors such as low ionic conductivity, poor stability at high pH, and high water uptake. A series of multiblock copolymers including poly(arylene ether)s and poly(norbornenes) with long head-group tethers were synthesized for use in AEM fuel cells and electrolyzers. In this study, the number of head-groups per block and resulting conductivity, domain size and water uptake was studied. The improvement in performance (increased conductivity and reduced water uptake) was correlated with domain size, bound and unbound water content, and ion channel configuration. Financial support for L.L. and J.M.A. from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged. Financial support for M.M. from ARPA-E Ionics program is gratefully acknowledged.

Turkey’s strategic choice: buy or make weapons?

Turkey has been investing in its national defence industrial base since the 1980s. As with other developing countries, Turkey’s motivations for investing in national defence industries can be boiled down to the pursuit of defence autarky, economic benefits and international prestige. However, after 40 years of investment, Turkey is unable to reach the primary goals of defence industrialisation. We argue that three factors are important to understanding Turkey’s persistence in these primary goals. First, Turkey believes that there is an overall improvement in its defence industrial capabilities and the goal of autarky is still reachable. Second, increased defence exports support the belief that Turkish defence industries have become sustainable and the trend will continue in the future. The third reason, perhaps most important of all, has to do with the domestic political gains of defence industrialisation: the AKP uses defence industry and indigenous weapon systems for prestige and, therefore, garners broader support.

Bipolar Membrane Fabrication for Hybrid Acid/Alkaline Fuel Cell Systems

Bipolar membranes fuel cells utilizing both anion and cation conductive materials have several advantages compared to their purely acidic or alkaline counterparts. The potential advantages include improved water management through self-hydration and facile electrode kinetics. Material transport properties play an important role in determining viability of membrane and ionomer materials. In addition, the cation-anion junction itself is a critical element in determining device performance because it must be sufficiently conductive to ionic species and mechanically stable to withstand the internal pressure from water formation. A series of electrochemical devices using different bipolar membranes have been fabricated for use in direct methanol and hydrogen fuel cells. This study examines both single- and two-membrane systems containing cation-anion junctions. These fuel cells were characterized by performance metrics and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to determine specific areas for improvement in the bipolar devices. Operation under varying humidity was studied in order to understand water management necessary for bipolar fuel cells. These results will be used in the future optimization of bipolar devices. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.

Anion Conducting Multiblock Copolymers

Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) fuel cells are a possible route to overcoming fundamental issues with acid-based fuel cells. The issues include the high cost of platinum catalysts, complex water management, and sluggish electrochemical reactions. However, the performance of AEM fuel cells is not as good as that of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells partially because of the limitations of current anion exchange membranes, such as low ionic conductivity, poor stability at high pH, and high water uptake. A series of partially fluorinated multiblock copoly(arylene ether)s with long head-group tether were synthesized for use in AEM fuel cells and electrolyzers. The multiblock copolymers were synthesized via polycondensation of hydroxyl-terminated oligomers and fluoro-terminated oligomers. The resulting multiblock structure has one hydrophilic block and one hydrophobic block. It was designed so that nanophase-separation occurs and efficient conductive channels are formed with low water uptake. Multiblock copolymers with different block lengths and ion exchange capacity (IEC) were synthesized to maximize ion conductivity and explore the relationship between chemical structures and membrane properties. A non-linear relationship was found between the number of head-groups on a hydrophilic block and the conductivity. Doubling the number of head-groups more than doubled the hydroxide conductivity. Hydroxide conductivity as high as 119 mS/cm at 80°C have been observed with a specific size block size: X5.4Y7, where X is the hydrophobic block and Y is the hydrophilic block. The hydrophobicity of the backbone has allowed synthesis of polymers with minimal water uptake. The ratio of conductivity-to-water uptake shows that less water is absorbed compared to conventional materials. The number of waters per ion within the polymer is as low as 4. This is reflected in the measurement of the amount of free-water and bound-water. No conductivity loss was observed after soaking the membrane in 1M NaOH solution at 60°C for over 700 hours. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.

Anion Conducting Multiblock Copolymers with Partial Fluorination and Long Side Chains

Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) fuel cells are a possible route to overcoming fundamental issues with acid-based fuel cells. The issues include the high cost of platinum catalysts, complex water management, and sluggish electrochemical reactions. However, the performance of AEM fuel cells is not as good as that of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells partially because of the limitations of current anion exchange membranes, such as low ionic conductivity, poor stability at high pH, and high water uptake. A series of partially fluorinated multiblock copoly(arylene ether)s with long head-group tether were synthesized for use in AEM fuel cells and electrolyzers. The multiblock copolymers were synthesized via polycondensation of hydroxyl-terminated oligomers and fluoro-terminated oligomers. The resulting multiblock structure has one hydrophilic block and one hydrophobic block. It was designed so that nanophase-separation occurs and efficient conductive channels are formed with low water uptake. Multiblock copolymers with different block lengths and ion exchange capacity (IEC) were synthesized to maximize ion conductivity and explore the relationship between chemical structures and membrane properties. Table 1 shows the membrane properties. A non-linear relationship was found between the number of head-groups on a hydrophilic block and the conductivity. Doubling the number of head-groups more than doubled the hydroxide conductivity. Hydroxide conductivity as high as 119 mS/cm at 80°C have been observed with a specific size block size: X5.4Y7, where X is the hydrophobic block and Y is the hydrophilic block. The hydrophobicity of the backbone has allowed synthesis of polymers with minimal water uptake. The ratio of conductivity-to-water uptake shows that less water is absorbed compared to conventional materials. The number of waters per ion within the polymer is as low as 4. This is reflected in the measurement of the amount of free-water and bound-water. No conductivity loss was observed after soaking the membrane in 1M NaOH solution at 60°C for over 700 hours. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged. Figure 1

Bipolar Membrane Design for Hybrid PEM/AEM Fuel Cells

Bipolar membranes fuel cells utilizing both anion and cation conductive materials have several advantages compared to their purely acidic or alkaline counterparts. The potential advantages include improved water management through self-hydration and facile electrode kinetics. Material transport properties play an important role in determining viability of membrane and ionomer materials. In addition, the cation-anion junction itself is a critical element in determining device performance because it must be sufficiently conductive to ionic species and mechanically stable to withstand the internal pressure from water formation. A series of electrochemical devices using different bipolar membranes have been fabricated for use in direct methanol and hydrogen fuel cells. This study examines both single- and two-membrane systems containing cation-anion junctions. These fuel cells were characterized by performance metrics and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to determine specific areas for improvement in the bipolar devices. Operation under varying humidity was studied in order to understand water management necessary for bipolar fuel cells. These results will be used in the future optimization of bipolar devices. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.

Anion Conductive Multiblock Copolymers with Long Side Chains for AEM Fuel Cells

Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) fuel cells are a possible route to overcoming fundamental issues with acid-based fuel cells. The issues include the high cost of platinum catalysts, complex water transport, and sluggish electrochemical reactions, etc. However, the performance of AEM fuel cells is not as good as that of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells because of the limitations of current anion exchange membranes, such as low ionic conductivity, poor stability at high pH, and high water uptake. A series of novel multiblock copoly(arylene ether)s with long side chains were synthesized for AEM fuel cells. The multiblock copolymers were synthesized by polycondensation of separately-prepared hydroxyl-terminated oligomers with fluoro-terminated oligomers. The resulting multiblock structure, in which one block is hydrophilic and one block is hydrophobic, was designed to ensure a nanophase-separated morphology. Multiblock copolymers with different block lengths and ion exchange capacities (IEC) were synthesized to maximize ion conductivity and explore the relationship between chemical structures and properties in anion exchange membranes. Furthermore, copolymers with long side chains exhibited higher stability in high pH environment than their counterparts without long side chains. The degradation mechanism was also studied for the long side chain block copolymers. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.

Materials and Cell Designs for Bipolar Fuel Cells

Bipolar membranes fuel cells utilizing both anion and cation conductive materials have several advantages compared to their purely acidic or alkaline counterparts due to improved water management and electrode kinetics. Material transport properties play an important role in determining viability of membrane and ionomer materials. Additionally, the material at the cation/anion junction is critical to device performance, as it must conduct ions to the interface in addition to mechanically binding the membranes. A series of devices using different interfacial materials has been fabricated for use in direct methanol and hydrogen fuel cells. These fuel cells were characterized by performance metrics and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to determine specific areas for improvement in the bipolar devices. Operation under varying humidity was studied in order to understand water management necessary for bipolar fuel cells. This work will drive the future optimization of bipolar devices.Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.

Synthesis and Properties of a Multiblock Copolymer with Long Side Chains for Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) fuel cells are a possible route to overcoming fundamental issues with acid-based fuel cells. The issues include the high cost of platinum catalysts, complex water transport, and sluggish electrochemical reactions, etc. However, the performance of AEM fuel cells is not as good as that of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells because of the limitations of current anion exchange membranes, such as low ionic conductivity, poor stability at high pH, and high water uptake. A series of novel multiblock copoly(arylene ether)s with long side chains were synthesized for AEM fuel cells. The multiblock copolymers were synthesized by polycondensation of separately-prepared hydroxyl-terminated oligomers with fluoro-terminated oligomers. The resulting multiblock structure, in which one block is hydrophilic and one block is hydrophobic, was designed to ensure a nanophase-separated morphology. Multiblock copolymers with different block lengths and ion exchange capacities (IEC) were synthesized to maximize ion conductivity and explore the relationship between chemical structures and properties in anion exchange membranes. Furthermore, copolymers with long side chains exhibited higher stability in high pH environment than their counterparts without long side chains. The degradation mechanism was also studied for the long side chain block copolymers. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.

Bipolar Membrane Fabrication for Fuel Cells

Bipolar membranes fuel cells utilizing both anion and cation conductive materials have several advantages compared to their purely acidic or alkaline counterparts due to improved water management and electrode kinetics. Material transport properties play an important role in determining viability of membrane and ionomer materials. Additionally, the material at the cation/anion junction is critical to device performance, as it must conduct ions to the interface in addition to mechanically binding the membranes. A series of devices using different interfacial materials has been fabricated for use in direct methanol and hydrogen fuel cells. These fuel cells were characterized by performance metrics and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to determine specific areas for improvement in the bipolar devices. In this manner, the effect of the cation/anion junction location can be determined and used for further improvement of bipolar membrane fuel cells. Financial support from US Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA-DE&C) is gratefully acknowledged.