Deese-Roediger-McDermott Research Articles

The fear of being laughed at (gelotophobia) in adults and children: testing trait-congruent false memories in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm

Abstract The fear of being laughed at (gelotophobia) is an individual differences variable characterized by negative reactions to laughter. Based on the theory of trait-congruent information processing, we conducted a series of experiments to examine a gelotophobia-related memory bias toward laughter in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm. The DRM is a reliable method to provoke false memories (FM). In Study 1 (101 adults), gelotophobia related positively to FM of the “laughter”-lure in recognition, and greater confidence in that FM (d ≤ 0.32). However, findings did not replicate in independent samples of 167 adults and 172 children of the preregistered Study 2. Aggregating the findings across studies indicated that gelotophobia is unrelated to laughter-related FM in the DRM paradigm (d ≤ 0.10) and that FM do not account for gelotophobes’ memories of ridicule.

Slovenian Version of the Deese–Roediger–McDermott Paradigm: A Normative and Exploratory Study

The research with the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm has accumulated substantial evidence for the reliable cross-cultural false memory effect. However, only a limited set of languages has had the benefit of receiving their own version of the DRM paradigm, let alone the corresponding normative data. In this study, we used 728 participants (594 women) to create the first Slovenian version of the DRM paradigm, and another 90 participants (66 women) to test its effectiveness in inducing false memories and conduct exploratory analyses. We are the first one to conduct a normative DRM study entirely online and among the few that measured reaction times (RTs) besides commonly employed accuracy measures. Overall, the participants recalled 69% of the list items and 14% of the critical lures, and additionally recognised 79% of the list items and 45% of the critical lures. The participants recalled and recognised list items as fast as critical lures and significantly faster than unrelated words. The study shows that false memories can be effectively explored by using the online format of the DRM paradigm. Future studies should investigate the relationship between RTs and accuracy measures, the relationship between recall and recognition, as well as the effects of the experimental environment on the results of the DRM studies in more detail. We hope that the provided material and its scrutiny will contribute to the progress in false memory research, especially in the Slovenian language environment.

Consolidation without intention: Sleep strengthens veridical and gist representations of information after incidental encoding.

Sleep strengthens declarative memory, but research investigating the effect of sleep on memory for information that is not explicitly studied for a test is sparse. In two experiments, we investigated the effect of sleep on gist-based and veridical representations of incidentally encoded information. Participants rated words from Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) lists in either a deep or shallow encoding task and completed a surprise memory test after either sleep or wake. In Experiment 1, words were presented in lists, in order of descending associativity with the unpresented critical lure. Memory for list words and critical lures in both encoding tasks was stronger after sleep than wake, suggesting that sleep consolidated gist-based memory. In Experiment 2, the same words were presented in a random order across the experiment to minimize gist-based processing. Sleep strengthened veridical memory for list words following deep, but not shallow, encoding and did not affect critical lures. These results suggest sleep consolidates gist and veridical representations of information after incidental encoding, and that sleep-dependent consolidation processes may depend on processes at encoding, such as overlapping context and the strength of veridical memory traces.

Sleep electroencephalogram (EEG) oscillations and associated memory processing during childhood and early adolescence.

The architecture of sleep undergoes distinct changes during childhood and early adolescence. Slow wave sleep is involved in memory processing and may support active consolidation of newly encoded representations to support the formation of abstracted "gist" memories. Here, we examined sleep and overnight memory formation in German school children (n = 33) between 7 and 15 years of age, after the encoding phase of a verbal Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task. Effects of age were analyzed on sleep electroencephalogram (EEG) signatures of memory processing during nonrapid eye movement (NonREM) sleep, and the overnight formation of veridical and gist-based memories. Increasing age decreases time spent in slow wave sleep, and slow wave activity, whereas density and amplitude of fast sleep spindles in NonREM sleep were increased. Moreover, fast spindles were more consistently and more closely coupled to the upstate of the slow oscillation in the older children. Also, veridical and gist-based recall of words after sleep increased with age. Notably, a closer slow oscillation upstate-fast spindle coupling predicted veridical recall of words, and this relationship was found independent of age. Memory performance in the sleeping children did not differ from that of an age-matched control group (n = 32) tested over a daytime wake retention interval, with adolescents even showing superior veridical recall after wake. Our findings suggest that slow oscillation-spindle coupling as a mechanism of sleep-dependent memory formation becomes increasingly relevant during childhood and early adolescence. However, wake-associated mechanisms similarly effective in forming medium-term memory exist in this age as well. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

EFFECT OF AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL FALSE MEMORY ON THE COMPLEXITY OF NEURAL OSCILLATIONS

Memory is an imperfect record of past experiences that enables us to operate in the present and think about the future. Although various factors may give a chance to a false recollection of information that may not occur. These false memories are formed based on various neuro-cognitive processes the underlying mechanism still needs to be well understood. Considering the extended searching when no memory trace is found, we hypothesized that the self-similarities in the brain activations must be higher during false memory recalls. Therefore, a language-free task based on autobiographical brand images was designed using the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm. The task was then tested on 24 healthy participants while the brain activities during the test were recorded using a 32-channel EEG system. Subsequently, the self-similarities in the brain activity pattern were estimated by taking the fractal dimension (FD) of the cleaned EEG data. Statistical analysis showed a significant increase in complexity during false memory recalls as compared to true memory recalls prominent in the frontal regions. Interestingly, the EEG findings were consistent in both genders and significantly correlated with subjects’ accuracy rates and reaction times (RTs) to recall.

Distinctive Sans Forgetica font does not benefit memory accuracy in the DRM paradigm

A common method used by memory scholars to enhance retention is to make materials more challenging to learn-a benefit termed desirable difficulties. Recently, researchers have investigated the efficacy of Sans Forgetica, a perceptually disfluent/distinctive font which may increase processing effort required at study and enhance memory as a result. We examined the effects of Sans Forgetica relative to a standard control font (Arial) on both correct memory and associative memory errors using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) false memory paradigm, to evaluate Sans Forgetica effects on overall memory accuracy. Across four experiments, which included nearly 300 participants, Sans Forgetica was found to have no impact on correct or false memory of DRM lists relative to a standard Arial control font, regardless of whether font type was manipulated within or between subjects or whether memory was assessed via free recall or recognition testing. Our results indicate that Sans Forgetica is ineffective for improving memory accuracy even when accounting for associative memory errors.

Individual differences in theory of mind correlate with the occurrence of false memory: A study with the DRM task.

Although long-term memory and Theory of Mind (ToM) are closely related across the whole lifespan, little is known about the relationship between ToM and semantic memory. Clinical studies have documented the co-occurrence of ToM impairments and semantic memory abnormalities in individuals with autism or semantic dementia. However, to date, no study has directly investigated the existence of a relationship between ToM and semantic memory in the typical population. We addressed this gap on a sample of 103 healthy adults (M age = 22.96 years; age range = 19-35 years). Participants completed a classical false memory task tapping on semantic processes, the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task, and two ToM tasks, the Triangles and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task. They also completed the vocabulary scale from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Results showed that participants' semantic performance in the DRM task was significantly related to that in the Triangles task. Specifically, the higher participants' ToM in the Triangles task, the higher participants' reliance on semantic memory while making false memories in the DRM task. Our findings are consistent with the Fuzzy Trace Theory and the Weak Central Coherence account and suggest that a (partially) common cognitive process responsible for global versus detailed-focus information processing could underlie these two abilities.

The Effects Of High-intensity Acute Exercise On True And False Memory

Prior research suggests that acute exercise may improve the accuracy of long-term memory performance when the bout of exercise occurs prior to encoding. However, when exercise occurs during encoding, memory may be impaired. Limited research has evaluated whether acute exercise before or during memory encoding has a differential effect on true and false memories. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether acute high-intensity exercise differentially influences true and false memories based on whether the bout of acute exercise occurs before or during memory encoding. METHODS: Thirty seven healthy young adults (Mage = 21.2 years, female, 73%) participated in a three condition, within-subject counterbalanced experimental study, consisting of two exercise conditions and a control condition. The exercise conditions involved a 15 minute bout of high-intensity acute exercise. These conditions included the bout of exercise either Before or During the memory task. The control condition involved a time-matched seated task (video). Memory performance was assessed from the DRM (Deese-Roediger-McDermott) paradigm, including an immediate and delayed (20 minute post-encoding) free recall assessment. True memory was evaluated by the number of correctly recalled words from the study list. A false memory occurred if a non-presented critical item was recalled. A 3 (condition: control, before exercise, and during exercise) x 2 (time point: immediate and delay) repeated measures ANOVA was employed. RESULTS: High-intensity acute exercise prior to memory encoding did not affect true memory, but memory encoding during high-intensity acute exercise reduced true memory. For the condition effects, Before was not different from Control, Mdiff = -.22, p = .42. However, During was significantly worse than Before, Mdiff = -1.42, p < .001 and Control, Mdiff = -1.64, p < .001. For the time period effects, the delay period had lower true memory recall than the immediate time period, Mdiff = -1.32, p < .001. We found no main or interactive effects of exercise on false memory. CONCLUSION: Overall, our findings suggest that exercising during memory encoding can reduce true memory performance, but this occurs without a change in false memory performance.

Do gender stereotypes give rise to false memories?

False memory is normally examined by the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm and it has shown an indirect association with gender stereotypes. In this study, gender effect on false memory formation along with the influence of emotional words stimuli were examined. 60 subjects (30 female) were recruited and they were exposed to 4 lists of 12 words in a DRM paradigm. Effects of gender stereotypes were examined using 2 lists of gender-categorized words. In addition, the emotional effect of the stimuli was also investigated by 2 lists of negatively-balanced or neutral lures (eg. blood or chair). Subsequently, false memory rates in the male and female participants were statistically compared using a mixed ANOVA model. The results showed a significant differential effect of gender on false memory formation as well as negative and neutral word stimuli.

Hands-on false memories: a combined study with distributional semantics and mouse-tracking

Although mouse-tracking has been seen as a real-time window into different aspects of human decision-making processes, currently little is known about how the decision process unfolds in veridical and false memory retrieval. Here, we directly investigated decision-making processes by predicting participants’ performance in a mouse-tracking version of a typical Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) task through distributional semantic models, a usage-based approach to meaning. Participants were required to study lists of associated words and then to perform a recognition task with the mouse. Results showed that mouse trajectories were extensively affected by the semantic similarity between the words presented in the recognition phase and the ones previously studied. In particular, the higher the semantic similarity, the larger the conflict driving the choice and the higher the irregularity in the trajectory when correctly rejecting new words (i.e., the false memory items). Conversely, on the temporal evolution of the decision, our results showed that semantic similarity affects more complex temporal measures indexing the online decision processes subserving task performance. Together, these findings demonstrate that semantic similarity can affect human behavior at the level of motor control, testifying its influence on online decision-making processes. More generally, our findings complement previous seminal theories on false memory and provide insights into the impact of the semantic memory structure on different decision-making components.

Theta Activity During Encoding Interacts With NREM Sleep Oscillations to Predict Memory Generalization.

Relatively little is known regarding the interaction between encoding-related neural activity and sleep-based memory consolidation. One suggestion is that a function of encoding-related theta power may be to “tag” memories for subsequent processing during sleep. This study aimed to extend previous work on the relationships between sleep spindles, slow oscillation-spindle coupling, and task-related theta activity with a combined Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) and nap paradigm. This allowed us to examine the influence of task- and sleep-related oscillatory activity on the recognition of both encoded list words and associative theme words. Thirty-three participants (29 females, mean age = 23.2 years) learned and recognised DRM lists separated by either a 2 h wake or sleep period. Mixed-effects modelling revealed the sleep condition endorsed more associative theme words and fewer list words in comparison to the wake group. Encoding-related theta power was also found to influence sleep spindle density, and this interaction was predictive of memory outcomes. The influence of encoding-related theta was specific to sleep spindle density, and did not appear to influence the strength of slow oscillation-spindle coupling as it relates to memory outcomes. The finding of interactions between wakeful and sleep oscillatory-related activity in promoting memory and learning has important implications for theoretical models of sleep-based memory consolidation.

False memory in posttraumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD) have been associated with an increased generation of false memories. We aimed to disentangle disorder-specific false memory in individuals with PTSD and BPD using the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. It measures the tendency to mistakenly remember stimuli that are associated with actually presented material, but have not been presented. Participants with BPD without comorbid PTSD (n = 32), participants with PTSD without comorbid BPD (n = 28), and mentally healthy controls (HC, n = 30) were given a word recognition test after hearing neutral, emotionally negative, BPD-related and PTSD-related word lists. Compared to HC, participants with PTSD showed fewer false memories for neutral word material and no other differences. Participants with BPD showed no differences in false memory formation compared to HC, only more false memories for a BPD-related and a PTSD-related word list compared to PTSD. Our results indicate, that in the absence of BPD, increased false memory in PTSD cannot be observed. In addition, our findings do not suggest that individuals with BPD and HC differ in their false memory formation. More trauma-individualized material should be used in future studies on false memory in PTSD.

Novel Approaches and Cognitive Neuroscience Perspectives on False Memory and Deception.

The DRM (Deese–Roediger–McDermott) paradigm produces robust false memories of non-presented critical words. After studying a thematic word list (e.g., bed, rest, and pillow) participants falsely remember the critical item “sleep.” We report two false memory experiments. Study One introduces a novel use of the lexical decision task (LDT) to prime critical words. Participants see two letter-strings and make timed responses indicating whether they are both words. The word pairs Night-Bed and Dream-Thweeb both prime “sleep” but only one pair contains two words. Our primary purpose is to introduce this new methodology via two pilot experiments. The results, considered preliminary, are promising as they indicate that participants were as likely to recognize critical words (false memories) and presented words (true memories) just as when studying thematic lists. Study Two actually employs the standard DRM lists so that semantic priming is in play there as well. The second study, however, uses functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure activity in the prefrontal cortex during a DRM task which includes a deception phase where participants intentionally lie about critical lures. False and true memories occurred at high levels and activated many of the same brain regions but, compared to true memories, cortical activity was higher for false memories and lies. Accuracy findings are accompanied by confidence and reaction time results. Both investigations suggest that it is difficult to distinguish accurate from inaccurate memories. We explain results in terms of activation-monitoring theory and Fuzzy Trace Theory. We provide real world implications and suggest extending the present research to varying age groups and special populations. A nagging question has not been satisfactorily answered: Could neural pathways exist that signal the presence of false memories and lies? Answering this question will require imaging experiments that focus on regions of distinction such as the anterior prefrontal cortex.

False (or biased) memory: Emotion and working memory capacity effects in the DRM paradigm.

This study aimed to investigate the role of emotion and working memory capacity (WMC) on false memory by measuring memory sensitivity independently of response bias. We used the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm in which arousal levels were kept constant across positive, negative, and neutral word lists associated with unstudied critical lures. Participants' WMC was measured by the Operation Span Task. Although negative critical lures generated significantly more false recognition (i.e., false-alarm rates) compared to positive or neutral ones, Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis based on signal detection theory showed that this effect could be ascribed to shifts in bias rather than actual memory sensitivity. Data revealed that the DRM effect is a robust illusion influenced by neither emotion nor WMC in terms of memory sensitivity. However, negative words led to a prominent increase in liberal bias to say "old" for both critical and noncritical lures. Furthermore, reaction time (RT) data suggested that mentally activated but actually unstudied critical lures were monitored as old words and that participants were faster to accept negative critical lures than positive or neutral ones, suggesting that the DRM illusion was clearly reflected on the RT data as well. These results were discussed emphasizing the role of negative emotion on response bias in recognition memory.

Remembering Molly: Immediate and delayed false memory formation after acute MDMA exposure

The entactogen 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is increasingly being recognized for its therapeutic potential but is also widespread in nightlife settings where it may co-occur with crime. Since previous research detected impaired verbal memory during acute MDMA intoxication, understanding the drug's ramifications in an applied legal context becomes crucial. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to examine acute and delayed effects of MDMA (75 mg) on false memory in 60 healthy volunteers with a history of MDMA use, using three well-established false memory methods: a basic, associative word list (Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM)) paradigm and two applied misinformation tasks using a virtual reality crime. Memory was tested immediately (encoding and retrieval under drug influence) and 1 week later (retrieval when sober). Small MDMA-induced impairments of true memory in the word list task were detected at both time points. MDMA increased false memory for related but non-critical lures during the immediate test, and decreased false memory for critical lures after a delay. Episodic memory assessed in the misinformation tasks was not consistently affected. Findings indicate a complex memory profile but no heightened vulnerability to external suggestion in response to MDMA intoxication. Recommendations for future applied legal psychological research include adding measures of recall on top of recognition, using study designs that separate the different memory phases, and potentially testing higher doses. Further research on false memories and suggestibility using imagination procedures can also be relevant for the clinical context.

Decomposing the semantic processes underpinning veridical and false memories.

The exact semantic processes subserving the formation of false memories are still poorly understood. Here, we directly probed the semantic origins of false memories in a typical Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task, by predicting participants' performance in this task through data-driven distributional semantic models. Participants were required to study lists of words and then to perform a recognition task. Our findings indicate that the participants' performance is better accounted for by a local rather than a global strategy on the task at hand: the single lists composing the task activate specific semantic clusters that are responsible for the occurrence of false memories. In particular, memory performance followed a continuous semantic gradient, with higher false recognitions occurring for higher sematic similarity between the lures (i.e., the false memory items) and the words in the relative lists. Crucially, our findings also show that semantic memory is differently involved in veridical and false memories, with this pattern being consistent across two reanalyses of data from previous studies and being replicated in an independent experiment. We thus outline an empirically-driven theoretical framework to account for the semantic processes supporting veridical and false memories formation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Self-Enhanced False Memory Across the Life Span.

The role of self in veridical memory has been extensively studied, but what is the role of self in false memory development across the life span? The current study examined the impact of self-reference on associative false memory in children, younger adults, and older adults, and further investigated possible mechanisms concerning how self-reference might affect false memory in different age groups. Combining a self-reference manipulation with the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, children, younger adults, and older adults encoded DRM word lists as paired with their own name, another person's name, or a red square. Later their true and false recognition memory as well as recollection and familiarity were measured. A self-enhanced false memory effect was found in all age groups. That is, participants generated more false memories in the self-reference condition relative to the other-reference and neutral conditions. Furthermore, when examining its underlying memory mechanisms, we found that self-reference mainly increased false recollection in younger adults but facilitated familiarity of critical lures in older adults. Although self-reference increases false memory in both younger and older adults, the underlying mechanisms are different in that older adults have more self-relevant false familiarity while younger adults generate more self-relevant phantom recollection. The current study also has implications for eyewitness reports, suggesting that the self-relevance of memory may be one relevant factor to consider when evaluating potential risk factors of false memory.

Sleep Modulates Emotional Effect on False Memory

Whereas sleep and emotion are important factors affecting false memory, there is a lack of empirical research on the interaction effect of sleep and emotion on false memory. Moreover, it should be investigated further that how the effects of emotion on false memory varies from presenting emotional content to eliciting emotional state. To examine how sleep and varying emotional context influence false memories. We predicted that sleep and emotion would interactively affect false memory when participants are presented with negative words in a learning session (Experiment 1) or when their emotional state is induced before a learning session (Experiment 2). We used the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task. Emotional words were used to elicit emotion during learning in Experiment 1 and video clips were used to induce a particular mood state before learning in Experiment 2. Participants were divided into a "sleep group" and a "wake group" and completed an initial learning session either in the evening or in the morning respectively. After a learning session, participants in the sleep group slept at night as usual and completed a recognition test in the morning, while participants in the wake group stayed awake during the daytime and completed their recognition test in the evening. All participants completed a recognition test after the same period of time. In Experiment 1, the wake group falsely recognized more negative critical lure words than neutral ones, but no such difference existed in the sleep group, suggesting that sleep modulated the emotional effect on false memory. In Experiment 2, participants in either a positive or negative mood state showed more false recognition than those in a neutral state. There was no such difference in the wake group. We conclude that sleep and emotion interactively affect false memory.

The Trajectory of Targets and Critical Lures in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott Paradigm: A Systematic Review.

The Deese/Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm has been used extensively to examine false memory. During the study session, participants learn lists of semantically related items (e.g., pillow, blanket, tired, bed), referred to as targets. Critical lures are items which are also associated with the lists but are intentionally omitted from study (e.g., sleep). At test, when asked to remember targets, participants often report false memories for critical lures. Findings from experiments using the DRM show the ease with which false memories develop in the absence of suggestion or misinformation. Given this, it is important to examine factors which influence the generalizability of the findings. One important factor is the persistence of false memory, or how long false memories last. Therefore, we conducted a systemic review to answer this research question: What is the persistence of false memory for specific items in the DRM paradigm? To help answer this question our review had two research objectives: (1) to examine the trajectory of target memory and false memory for critical lures and (2) to examine whether memory for targets exceeded false memory for critical lures. We included empirical articles which tested memory for the same DRM lists with at least two testing sessions. We discuss the results with respect to single-session delays, long-term memory recall and recognition, remember and know judgments for memory, and the effect of development, valence, warning, and connectivity on the trajectory of memory. Overall, the trajectory of targets showed a relatively consistent pattern of decrease across delay. The trajectory of critical lures was inconsistent. The proportion of targets versus critical lures across delay was also inconsistent. Despite the inconsistencies, we conclude that targets and critical lures have a dissimilar trajectory across delay and that critical lures are more persistent than targets. The findings with respect to long-term recall and recognition are consistent with both Fuzzy Trace Theory and Associative-Activation Theory of the DRM effect. The generation of false memory with brief delays (3–4 s) is better explained by Associative-Activation Theory. Examining the connectivity between target items, and critical lures, and the effect that has during study and retrieval, can provide insight into the persistence of false memory for critical lures.

Drawing individual images benefits recognition accuracy in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm.

We examined the effects of drawing on correct and false recognition within the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) false memory paradigm. In Experiment 1, we compared drawing of a word's referent using either a standard black pencil or coloured pencils relative to a read-only control group. Relative to reading, drawing in either black or coloured pencil similarly boosted correct recognition and reduced false recognition. Signal-detection analyses indicated that drawing reduced the amount of encoded memory information for critical lures and increased monitoring, indicating that both processes contributed to the false recognition reduction. Experiment 2 compared drawing of individual images of DRM list items relative to drawing integrated images using sets of DRM list items. False recognition was lower for drawing of individual images relative to integrated images-a pattern that reflected a decrease in encoded memory information but not monitoring. Therefore, drawing individual images improves memory accuracy in the DRM paradigm relative to a standard read-control task and an integrated-drawing task, which we argue is due to the recruitment of item-specific processing.