Deer Populations Research Articles

Application of the tyraliera counting method to the large-scale inventory of red deer Cervus elaphus in the northern part of Western Pomerania, Poland

Game animal damage in the forests and fields of Central Europe, which dramatically increased at the turn of the 21st century, has undermined the reliability of the size of game population estimates. It is hypothesized that this problem can be attributed to errors in the assessment of animal density. This study conducted game inventories in a region characterized by a large ungulate population using a count method with drivers in line formation (direct counts in control plots). The size of the red deer population in the investigated area was estimated using generalized linear models assuming a negative binomial distribution based on the compound distribution (including the zero-inflated model). The mean red deer density in spring 2012 was 21.5 animals/km2 of forest. The number of red deer determined during this study is often higher that hunters indicated in annual game management plans. For the rational management of populations, it is therefore necessary to verify those estimates periodically, e.g. every five years. The statistical analysis of data from tyraliera method counts may show the actual population size during spring. Thus, it can be the basis for adequately planning hunting bags. Adjusting the population density to the carrying environmental capacity should make it possible to reduce the pressure of red deer on forests and agricultural land.

HUMAN INTERFERENCES TO REWILD THE NATURE DEPICTED IN CHARLOTTE MCCONAGHY’S ONCE THERE WERE WOLVES

Environmental problems have become a severe issue in recent decades. The world has started to change due to human activities that affect the natural environment. Deforestation, industrialization, burning fuels, human overpopulation, and many more have triggered climate change. In her novel, Once There Were Wolves, Charlotte McConaghy vividly describes such a condition. This novel exposes how the Scottish Highlands begins to ruin because of the overabundant population of deer. They eat the plant shoots, and that makes the plants die. Moreover, this research intends to investigate human interferences in saving damaged nature as depicted in the novel. This study is a literary criticism since it aims to analyze the object used. Furthermore, the Ecocriticism approach was employed to analyze humans' efforts to help nature return to its natural state. The research method involves a deep reading and understanding of Charlotte McConaghy’s Once There Were Wolves, with a focus on the humans’ effort to rewild nature. The result reveals the portrayal of humans’ actions to help nature back into its natural state by releasing wolves as the apex predator, keeping the forest and vegetation, and finding places to grow trees. Doing those actions helps the Scottish Land back naturally. The deer population decreases and the land becomes a beautiful place to go.

Wild game processors’ perceptions of chronic wasting disease risks in Michigan

ABSTRACT Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a neurodegenerative disease that threatens deer population health and management. This qualitative study explored processors’ perception of CWD risks, and the solutions or barriers they experience regarding managing these risks. Processors can play a critical role preventing consumption of CWD-positive venison by keeping CWD-positive deer out of facilities and implementing practices that minimize the risk of cross-contamination should CWD-positive deer enter facilities. Our analysis of semi-structured interviews of wild game processors found that they are concerned about CWD but have not altered processing practices, believing that most of the responsibilities for preventing CWD spread lie with hunters. Processors suggested several practices that state regulatory agencies can implement to aid in efforts to ensure that no CWD-positive deer enter facilities. This research may inform state agencies’ CWD communication efforts and identify actionable policies that better ensure processors can help prevent the consumption of CWD-positive venison.

Landscape structure does not hinder the dispersal of an invasive herbivorous mammal in the New Caledonian biodiversity hotspot

Biological invasions are a major threat to biodiversity and have particularly devastating impacts on island ecosystems. The New Caledonia archipelago is considered a biodiversity hotspot due to its diverse native flora. Javan rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) were introduced to New Caledonia in 1870 and the population consists of several hundred thousand individuals today. They directly threaten rare endemic species and affect the composition and structure of the vegetation. While a rusa deer management plan has identified ten priority areas for deer control operations, removing deer could be offset by the dispersal of animals back into the control areas. Here, we genotyped 628 rusa deer using 16 microsatellite markers to analyse the genetic structure of the animals in New Caledonia. We aimed to assess fine-scale genetic structure, to identify natural barriers to deer movement and to assess functional connectivity by optimising individual-based landscape resistance models. Our results suggested that rusa deer formed a single genetic population on the main New Caledonian island. The isolation-by-distance pattern suggested that female dispersal was limited, whereas males had larger dispersal distances. We assessed functional connectivity using different genetic distance metrics and all models performed poorly (mR2 ≤ 0.0043). Landscape features thus hardly affected deer movement. The characteristics of our results suggested that they were not an artefact of the colonisation history of the species. Achieving an effective reduction of deer population sizes in specific management areas will be difficult because of the deer’s high dispersal capabilities and impossible without very substantial financial investment.

Diet analysis of Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) based on stable isotope analysis

Supplemental feed for free‐ranging deer is often advocated by managers to compensate for winter survival. However, providing extra food has great costs so it is important to know how essential supplemental feed is for deer populations. In our study, supplemental feed is supplied year round for free‐ranging Père David's deer Elaphurus davidianus since early 2019 to help them survive food shortages in the Jiangsu Dafeng Milu National Nature Reserve. To understand use of supplemental feed, we quantified the biomass contributions of C3 plants, C4 plants and supplemental feed consumed by free‐ranging deer by assessing their faecal carbon and nitrogen stable isotope values in May, July, October and December. The diet–faeces trophic shift of deer was assessed using semi‐captive animals. Faeces in both areas were collected and faecal δ13C values revealed more variable diets of free‐ranging deer than semi‐captive deer in different months. MixSIAR model showed that C4 plants contributed greatly to deer diet biomass (75.1, 82, 64.3, 79.4%, respectively in May, July, October and December) compared with C3 plants and supplemental feed. We suggest that managers should consider the efficiency of long‐term supplemental feed and consider the selection of C3 and C4 plants during restoration.

The feed preference of roe deer in different habitats

The roe deer, widely distributed across Europe and our homeland, has a significant economic and hunting value. Our research aims to understand the diet and food choice of deer in the lowland (Great Hungarian Plain, Hódmezővásárhely) and mid-mountain (North Hungarian Mountains, Salgótarján) habitats. To determine their diet, we conducted a sample collection of roe deer and analysed their droppings using epidermal analysis. Descriptive statistics were employed to determine the proportions of ingested plants, revealing Petroselium spp. (6.5-8.3%) and Beta spp. leaves (4.3-9.1%) as the most commonly consumed plants in Hódmezővásárhely. In Salgótarján, the roe deer population consumed significant amounts of Robinia pseudoacacia (47.8%). These findings have implications for wildlife management and conservation, particularly in areas where roe deer are the predominant big game species, such as the Great Hungarian Plain, providing ample opportunities for hunting and economic benefits.

Analysis on Changes and Influencing Factors of the Intestinal Microbiota of Alpine Musk Deer between the Place of Origin and Migration.

In China, the population of wild musk deer, belonging to the family Moschidae, has drastically decreased in recent years owing to human activities and environmental changes. During the 1990s, artificial breeding of Alpine musk deer was conducted in Xinglong Mountain, Gansu Province, China, and their ex situ conservation was explored for over a decade. Ex situ protection is beneficial for expanding the population of animals and maintaining their genetic diversity; however, it can also induce metabolic diseases and parasitic infections and reduce reproductive capacity. The gut microbiota of animals has a considerable impact on host energy metabolism and immune regulation, thereby playing a crucial role in the overall health and reproductive success of the host. In this study, by comparing the differences in the intestinal microbiome of the musk deer according to their place of origin and migration, the changes in their gut microbiota and the influencing factors were explored to provide a theoretical basis for monitoring the health status of the musk deer. We used 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technology to analyze the structure and diversity of the gut microbiota of Alpine musk deer in Gansu (G, place of origin) and Sichuan (S, place of migration). The results showed that the dominant bacteria and genera in the intestinal microbiome of captive musk deer were similar in the places of origin and migration, but significant differences were observed in their relative abundance (p < 0.05). Regarding Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, which are related to plant cellulose digestion, the relative abundance in group G was higher than that in group S; regarding Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia, which are related to fat and starch intake, the relative abundance in group S was higher than that in group G; the relative abundance of Bacillus and Clostridium sensu stricto, which are related to fiber digestibility, was higher in group G than in group S; the relative abundance of conditional pathogens Acinetobacter and Escherichia-Shigella was higher in group S than in group G. The results of α and β diversity analysis also showed significant differences between the two groups (p < 0.05). The ACE and Shannon indices of musk deer in group G were considerably higher than those in group S, and the Simpson index of musk deer in group S was greater than that in group G, indicating that the abundance and diversity of intestinal microbiome were higher in musk deer of Gansu than those of Sichuan. Comparison of the changes in the intestinal microbiome of the musk deer according to the place of origin and migration showed that the plant cellulose content in the food of the musk deer, the fat content in the concentrated feed, and changes in the feeding environment have an impact on the intestinal microbiome. Effective monitoring of the health and immunity of the musk deer is crucial for ensuring their overall health, which in turn will aid in formulating a scientific and reasonable management plan for their conservation.

Over-winter body mass and conceptions of white-tailed deer in central Texas

At lower latitudes ungulate reproduction is often seasonal, but the duration of mating and parturition seasons can be long. To further understand the adaptive significance of synchrony in reproductive events, we examined two hypotheses to link over-winter body mass with lower synchrony of conceptions in a wild population of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) in central Texas. If females maintain over-winter body mass, then the window of time that conception occurs should be relaxed and longer relative to females where over-winter body mass declines. Across 9 years, we measured body mass in 1.5-year-old and older females in November ( n = 170) and in March (118). In March, we also measured forehead–rump lengths in offspring of gravid females and calculated conception dates. Over-winter body mass did not decline but was maintained, on average, across the years of study. Conception dates ranged over 50 days and 52% of conceptions occurred in a 2-week period centered on the median conception date. Relative to northern populations of deer, there was lower synchrony in conception dates. White-tailed deer across the geographic range appear to be flexible in over-winter body mass dynamics that affects duration of reproductive events such as conception.

Feeding habits of a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus cariacou) population as inferred by dental wear at a protected area of the Colombian Orinoquia

Feeding habits of a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus cariacou) population as inferred by dental wear at a protected area of the Colombian Orinoquia

Population Dynamics of a Declining White-Tailed Deer Population in the Southern Appalachian Region of the United States

Although generally abundant, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in the southeastern United States have recently experienced several localized declines attributed to reduced fawn recruitment following the establishment of coyotes (Canis latrans). The Southern Appalachians is a mountainous region suggested to be experiencing white-tailed deer declines, as harvest numbers and hunter success rates have substantially decreased in northern Georgia since 1979. Low fawn survival (16%) was also recently documented in the Chattahoochee National Forest (CNF) in northern Georgia, necessitating further examination. We radio-collared 14 yearling and 45 adult female white-tailed deer along with 71 fawns during 2018–2020 in the CNF to estimate field-based vital rates (i.e., survival and fecundity) and parameterize stage-structured population models. We projected population growth rates (λ) over 10 years to evaluate the current rate of decline and various other management scenarios. Our results indicated that the observed population would decline by an average of 4.0% annually (λ = 0.960) under current conditions. Only scenarios including antlerless harvest restrictions in addition to improved fawn survival resulted in positive growth (λ = 1.019, 1.085), suggesting these measures are likely necessary for population recovery in the region. This approach can be applied by wildlife managers to inform site-specific management strategies.

Survival, cause‐specific mortality, and population growth of white‐tailed deer in western Virginia

AbstractUnderstanding the role of recruitment in population dynamics of white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is important for management. In the central Appalachian Mountains, deer are part of a largely forested ecosystem that supports 3 carnivore species thought to be capable of influencing white‐tailed deer recruitment: black bears (Urus americanus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and bobcats (Lynx rufus). Yet little is known about predation, how other environmental factors influence recruitment, or the importance of neonate survival to white‐tailed deer population performance in the region. Our objectives were to identify causes of mortality for neonates, analyze effects of landscape attributes on survival of neonates, estimate survival rates for neonates and adult female white‐tailed deer, and to model population growth trends based on current vital rates and hypothetical harvest and neonate survival scenarios. During 2019–2020, we captured 57 neonate deer in Bath County, Virginia, USA, by monitoring 38 pregnant females equipped with global positioning system collars and vaginal implant transmitters and by conducting transect searches for recently born neonates. We observed 37 neonate mortalities and identified cause of death using field and genetic evidence. Mortalities included 28 predation events and 9 deaths from other causes (e.g., abandonment, malnutrition, disease). Black bears accounted for 48.6% of neonate mortalities, and 64.2% of predation events (n = 18), followed by bobcats (n = 5) and coyotes (n = 3). Annual survival for adult female deer was 0.871 and neonate survival to 12 weeks old was 0.310. Elevation was a significant predictor of neonate survival; mortality risk increased 20% for every 100‐m increase in elevation. Models of annual population growth using observed vital rates predicted an increasing population (λ = 1.10). A 10% increase in female harvest would still result in a potential population increase of 2% (λ = 1.02), but a 20% increase in harvest rate would result in a potential 7% decline (λ = 0.93). Neonate survival was higher near fertile valley bottoms and lower along forested ridges characterized by shallow, infertile soils and limited edge or early successional forests. While predation, largely influenced by black bears, was the leading cause of neonate mortality and contributed to low neonate survival, we observed little evidence of population decline, and suggest there is opportunity for a modest increase in harvest of female deer.

Experimental Evidence of the Diarrheal Activity of Sarcocystis sp. in Sika Deer (Cervus nippon).

Recently, the wild deer population has been increasing in Japan, causing serious feeding-related damage to the agricultural and forestry industries. In conjunction with the government's promotion of hunting for population control, the effective utilization of resources and promotion of the game meat industry as a sixth sector of industrialization are desired by local governments. However, several cases in which patients showed intestinal symptoms such as diarrhea due to the consumption of sika deer meat infected with protozoan Sarcocystis spp. have been reported, and the pathogenic microorganisms found in wild deer should be investigated. In this study, Sarcocystis sp. parasitized Kyushu sika deer (Cervus nippon nippon) in Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan, was examined for its enterotoxicity. A phylogenetic analysis based on the sequence of the 18S rRNA gene and cox1 showed that the species was highly homologous to Sarcocystis japonica and/or Sarcocystis sp. HM050622. We attempted to confirm the diarrhea-evoking toxicity of Sarcocystis sp. in sika deer meat, which has been previously reported in human case reports. A mouse ileal loop assay showed that Sarcocystis sp. in sika deer meat induced significant fluid accumulation in the loop at doses of ∼5 × 106 bradyzoites. Western blotting showed that these Sarcocystis parasites possess actin-depolymerizing factor, a diarrhea-evoking factor, similar to Sarcocystis fayeri, which exists in horsemeat. However, the pathogenic conditions of the ileal loop were different from those of similar experiments with S. fayeri. This study suggests that S. japonica parasitizing C. n. nippon may cause diarrhea via a different mechanism from that of S. fayeri.

Этноэкономическая трансформация горно-таежного оленеводства в Иркутской области

Abstract. The purpose of the study is the analysis of ethno-economic problems and consequences of transformations of the mountain-taiga reindeer husbandry in Tofalaria. Research methods. To study the reindeer husbandry of the Tofs, an indigenous people of Siberia, a combination of ethno-economic and ecological-geographical methods, as well as elements of a systematic approach, were used, on the basis of which data on the state of reindeer husbandry as a component of the traditional economy were interpreted. Results. The role of transformational processes in the formation of the crisis of reindeer breeding, the decrease in the number of deer, and the change in the nature of land use has been established. Ethno-economic transformations have led to the loss of reindeer breeding skills and micro-areal development of reindeer pastures. It was revealed that the development of rural areas of Tofalaria requires a revision of the traditional ethno-economic complex. Taiga small-scale reindeer husbandry performs the transport function of providing hunting, it does not belong to profitable industries, there are no methods to calculate its effectiveness in objective terms. It is emphasized that the main guidelines for assessing reindeer breeding are the preservation of the deer population and the age and sex structure of the herd, as well as its symbolic significance for the ethnic culture of the Tofs. The request of the ethnosociety for the development of reindeer husbandry expresses both the needs of the traditional economy and the ethnocultural aspects of ethnicity. These conclusions contribute to expanding the understanding of the complex nature of traditional nature management systems and their sustainability. The practical significance of the results lies in the possibility of adjusting regional programs to support indigenous peoples, taking them into account. Scientific novelty. It has been established that in the crisis state of reindeer husbandry, the consequences of unfinished transformation processes and the contradictions caused by them in the natural and economic system of traditional nature management are still affecting. Inconsistency in management based on planned indicators and ignoring traditional experience laid the foundation for a negative scenario for the development of reindeer husbandry long before the post-Soviet transformations.

Biometric Characteristics of Live Weight in Reindeer Populations of the Eastern Arctic and Subarctic

Purpose: the study of biometric data on live weight and their significance for artificial selection in the population of the northern deer (Rangifertarandus L.) ..Materials and methods. Information was used from annual reports of reindeer herding of the North of the Far East. The methods of variation statistics that are generally accepted in zootechnical research were applied. Extreme (LIM) and average values (M) of the sign, trust boundaries of the general average (M ± t ∙ m), the average square deviation (σ), the coefficient of variation (CV), the boundaries of the extreme class variation (M ± 2σ) are determined. Associations of a live mass of sexual age groups in the population of the northern deer were established by calculating the correlation coefficients (R) and rectilinear regression (B).Results. The consolidated correlation coefficient (RSV), reflecting the level of direct linear connection of the live weight of calves with a mass of uterus and manufacturers, was ≈ 0.7, which relates to the degree of close dependence. Using the regression equation (y = a+bx) calculated the predicted average size of the live weight of young animals in the average live weight of the importance. The data allow you to establish the threshold of selection of tribal animals in order to obtain offspring with a given value of the sign. In the study, the impact on the live mass of the season, year, range, and farms is leveled. It was established that throughout the generations a living mass is a stable phenotypic sign. Biometric data on live weight, as a quantitative attitude, indirectly reflect the state and movement of group genetic information in the populations of deer of the Far North-East of Russia.

Comparative genomics and genome-wide SNPs of endangered Eld’s deer provide breeder selection for inbreeding avoidance

Eld’s deer, a conserved wildlife species of Thailand, is facing inbreeding depression, particularly in the captive Siamese Eld’s deer (SED) subspecies. In this study, we constructed genomes of a male SED and a male Burmese Eld’s deer (BED), and used genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms to evaluate the genetic purity and the inbreeding status of 35 SED and 49 BED with limited pedigree information. The results show that these subspecies diverged approximately 1.26 million years ago. All SED were found to be purebred. A low proportion of admixed SED genetic material was observed in some BED individuals. Six potential breeders from male SED with no genetic relation to any female SED and three purebred male BED with no relation to more than 10 purebred female BED were identified. This study provides valuable insights about Eld’s deer populations and appropriate breeder selection in efforts to repopulate this endangered species while avoiding inbreeding.

Numerical top‐down effects on red deer (Cervus elaphus) are mainly shaped by humans rather than large carnivores across Europe

Abstract Terrestrial ecosystems are shaped by interacting top‐down and bottom‐up processes, with the magnitude of top‐down control by large carnivores largely depending on environmental productivity. While carnivore‐induced numerical effects on ungulate prey populations have been demonstrated in large, relatively undisturbed ecosystems, whether large carnivores can play a similar role in more human‐dominated systems is a clear knowledge gap. As humans influence both predator and prey in a variety of ways, the ecological impacts of large carnivores can be largely modified. We quantified the interactive effects of human activities and large carnivore presence on red deer (Cervus elaphus) population density and how their impacts interacted and varied with environmental productivity. Data on red deer density were collected based on a literature survey encompassing 492 study sites across 28 European countries. Variation in density across study sites was analysed using a generalized additive model in which productivity, carnivore presence (grey wolf, European lynx, Brown bear), human activities (hunting, intensity of human land‐use activity), site protection status and climatic variables served as predictors. The results showed that a reduction in deer density only occurred when wolf, lynx and bear co‐occurred within the same site. In the absence of large carnivores, red deer density varied along a productivity gradient without a clear pattern. Although a linear relationship with productivity in the presence of all three large carnivore species was found, this was not statistically significant. Moreover, hunting by humans had a stronger effect than the presence of all large carnivores in reducing red deer density and red deer density increased with increasing intensity of human land use, with stronger large carnivore effects (all three carnivore species present) at sites with low human land‐use activities. Synthesis and applications. This study provides evidence for the dominant role played by humans (i.e. hunting, land‐use activities) relative to large carnivores in reducing red deer density across European human‐dominated landscapes. These findings suggest that when we would like large carnivores to exert numeric effects, we should focus on minimizing human impacts to allow the ecological impacts of large carnivores on ecosystem functioning.

Genetic diversity and complex structure of the European Roe Deer population at a continental scale

Abstract Although the European Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) is one of the most common and widespread ungulate species in Europe and inhabiting a variety of habitats, few studies have addressed its population structure at a large spatial scale using nuclear genetic data. The aims of our study were to: (i) investigate genetic diversity, level of admixture, and genetic structure across European Roe Deer populations; (ii) identify barriers to gene flow; and (iii) reveal factors that have impacted the observed pattern of population genetic structure. Using 12 microsatellite loci, we analyzed 920 European Roe Deer samples from 16 study sites from northern, southern, central, and eastern Europe. The highest genetic diversity was found in central and eastern sites, and lowest in the northern and southern sites. There were 2 main groups of genetically related populations in the study area—one inhabiting mainly Fennoscandia, and the second in the continental part of Europe. This second population was further divided into 3 to 5 spatially distributed genetic clusters. European Roe Deer belonging to the Siberian mitochondrial DNA clade, inhabiting large parts of eastern Europe, were not identified as a separate population in the analysis of microsatellite loci. No isolation by distance (IBD) was detected between roe deer from the fennoscandian and the continental study sites, but the Baltic Sea was inferred to be the main barrier to gene flow. Only weak IBD was revealed within the continental population. Three lower-level genetic barriers were detected in the western, southern, and eastern parts of the study area. The main factors inferred as shaping the observed genetic diversity and population structure of European Roe Deer were postglacial recolonization, admixture of different populations of the species originating from several Last Glacial Maximum refugial areas, and isolation of several study sites.

Eat or be eaten: Implications of potential exploitative competition between wolves and humans across predator-savvy and predator-naive deer populations.

Recolonization of predators to their former ranges is becoming increasingly prevalent. Such recolonization places predators among their prey once again; the latter having lived without predation (from such predators) for a considerable time. This renewed coexistence creates opportunities to explore predation ecology at both fundamental and applied levels. We used a paired experimental design to investigate white-tailed deer risk allocation in the Upper and Lower Peninsulas (UP and LP) in Michigan, USA. Wolves are functionally absent in the LP, while deer in the UP coexist with a re-established wolf population. We treated 15 sites each in UP and LP with wolf olfactory cues and observed deer vigilance, activity, and visitation rates at the interface of habitat covariates using remote cameras. Such a paired design across wolf versus no-wolf areas allowed us to examine indirect predation effects while accounting for confounding parameters such as the presence of other predators and human activity. While wolf urine had no effect across most metrics in both UP and LP, we observed differences in deer activity in areas with versus without wolves. Sites treated with wolf urine in the UP showed a reduction in crepuscular deer activity, compared to control/novel-scent treated sites. Furthermore, we observed a strong positive effect of vegetation cover on deer vigilance in these sites. This indicates that simulated predator cues likely affect deer vigilance more acutely in denser habitats, which presumably facilitates predation success. Such responses were however absent among deer in the LP that are presumably naïve toward wolf predation. Where human and non-human predators hunt shared prey, such as in Michigan, predators may constrain human hunting success by increasing deer vigilance. Hunters may avoid such exploitative competition by choosing hunting/bait sites located in open areas. Our results pertaining to fundamental predation ecology have strong applied implications that can promote human-predator coexistence.

Comparative Analysis of Microsatellite and SNP Markers for Genetic Management of Red Deer.

The analysis of population genetic structure and individual multilocus heterozygosity are crucial for wildlife management and conservation. Microsatellite markers have traditionally been used to assess these genetic parameters. However, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are becoming increasingly popular. Our goal here was to determine to what extent SNPs can provide better insights than microsatellites into the overall genetic status and population genetic processes in the species. To this end, we genotyped 210 red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Spanish wild population with both 11 microsatellites and 31,712 SNPs. We compared parameters related to population genetic structure and individual multilocus heterozygosity obtained with both types of markers. Our results showed correlations between parameters measured using both microsatellites and SNPs, particularly those related to the level of genetic diversity and genetic differentiation. However, we found notably lower precision of microsatellites in measuring the distribution of genetic diversity among individuals. We conclude that microsatellites can be used to monitor the overall genetic status and detect broad patterns in red deer populations. Nevertheless, the greater precision of SNPs in inferring genetic structure and multilocus heterozygosity leads us to encourage scientists and wildlife managers to prioritize their use whenever possible.

Numerical response of predator to prey: Dynamic interactions and population cycles in Eurasian lynx and roe deer

AbstractThe dynamic interactions between predators and their prey have two fundamental processes: numerical and functional responses. Numerical response is defined as predator growth rate as a function of prey density or both prey and predator densities [dP/dt = f(N, P)]. Functional response is defined as the kill rate by an individual predator being a function of prey density or prey and predator densities combined. Although there are relatively many studies on the functional response in mammalian predators, the numerical response remains poorly documented. We studied the numerical response of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) to various densities of its primary prey species, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and to itself (lynx). We exploited an unusual natural situation, spanning three decades where lynx, after a period of absence in central and southern Sweden, during which roe deer populations had grown to high densities, subsequently recolonized region after region, from north to south. We divided the study area into seven regions, with increasing productivity from north to south. We found strong effects of both roe deer density and lynx density on lynx numerical response. Thus, both resources and intraspecific competition for these resources are important to understanding the lynx population dynamic. We built a series of deterministic lynx–roe deer models, and applied them to the seven regions. We found a very good fit between these Lotka–Volterra type models and the data. The deterministic models produced almost cyclic dynamics or dampened cycles in five of the seven regions. Thus, we documented population cycles in this large predator–large herbivore system, which is rarely done. The amplitudes in the dampened cycles decreased toward the south. Thus, the dynamics between lynx and roe deer became more stable with increasing carrying capacity for roe deer, which is related to higher productivity in the environment. This increased stability could be explained by variation in predation risk, where human presence can act as prey refugia, and by a more diverse prey guild that will weaken the direct interaction between lynx and roe deer.