Deep-water Basin Research Articles

Sedimentary, geochemical and reservoir characteristics of the Quaternary submarine fan in the Qiongdongnan basin

The South China Sea holds significant marine oil and gas resources, with the Qiongdongnan Basin being a key area. Submarine fans, as major marine reservoir systems, are crucial for storing natural gas and gas hydrates. However, research on the large Quaternary submarine fan in this basin is limited. Our study examines the importance of Quaternary submarine fans in the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea, with a focus on their development. By utilizing 3D seismic data and core samples, our research aims to analyze submarine fan features and their developmental processes. The submarine fans are divided into four units, with Unit 1–2 submarine fans and internal waterways gradually increasing in size, and Unit 2 to Unit 4 submarine fans and waterway development decreasing in size. Through major and trace element analysis of core samples, we discovered that each major and trace element has different characteristics in different units, such as higher relative contents of Zr and Ti in Units 3 and 4, and higher relative contents of K in Unit 2. Simultaneously microscopic observations and reservoir characteristic parameters are utilized to evaluate the quality of submarine fan reservoirs. We reveal that Unit 2 has the best reservoir quality, followed by Unit 1, and that Units 3 and 4 have poor reservoirs quality This research enhances understanding of the sedimentary evolution of submarine fans in the Qiongdongnan Basin, offers insights into regional geological processes and contributes to global deep-water basin exploration and management.

Seismic geomorphology and reservoir conditions of a Middle Miocene submarine channel system in the Taranaki basin, New Zealand

Deepwater channels function as vital deep-sea hydrocarbon reservoirs and as major routes for moving terrestrial clastic sediment to deepwater environments. A high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework was built for the deepwater area of the Taranaki Basin using high-resolution three-dimensional (3D) seismic data, and various seismic interpretation techniques, including seismic attribute analysis, were applied. The principal controlling factors and petroleum development potential of the Middle-Miocene channel system were investigated with sequence stratigraphy and seismic geomorphology. Four understandings were primarily attained in this study: (1) depending on the different levels of the channel surfaces, the channel system can be divided into five sedimentary units (SU1-SU5), which correspond to the five stages of channel system evolution. These surfaces include one primary draping surface (PDS), five secondary channel erosion surfaces (SCES), and several tertiary channel erosion surfaces (TCES). (2) with the use of seismic facies analysis, six sedimentary elements were identified in the channel system: pelagic deposits (PDs), mass transport deposits (MTDs), outer levee complex (OLC), inner levee and terrace complex (ILTC), and turbidite channel complexes (TCCs). (3) The sedimentary evolution of the channel system was jointly influenced by multiple factors. The sediment supply and submarine geomorphology can directly affect the internal stacking and migration patterns of the channel. In contrast, tectonic activity and relative sea level fluctuations can indirectly affect the sedimentary characteristics of the channel by regulating the components and scale of clastic sediment. (4) SU1, SU2, and SU3 are primarily filled with coarse-grained sediments, which can serve as high-quality hydrocarbon reservoirs. In contrast, SU4 and SU5 can serve as regional cap rocks because they are filled with fine-grained sediments, and the overall channel system can represent a potential hydrocarbon reservoir-cap combination, which can be viewed as a significant research target for upcoming deepwater exploration. Clarifying the sedimentary properties and primary controlling factors at the various evolutionary stages of deepwater channels is vital for predicting the hydrocarbon development potential of the basin and reducing the drilling risk. This also helps with the development of deepwater basins with similar sedimentary environments in New Zealand and elsewhere in the world.

Mechanism and controlling factors of mass transport complexes migration: A case study of the mass transport complexes in the taranaki deep water basin, New Zealand

Mass transport Complexes (MTCs) form significant sediment accumulations in continental slopes, hold key insights for natural hazard prediction and offshore oil exploration. This paper uses high-definition 3D seismic data to reconstruct the seismic geomorphology and sedimentary dynamics of MTCs, meticulously exploring the depositional systems of the Tanaraki Basin, New Zealand. It deciphers by kinematic notation, seismic faciess, quantifies megaclast morphological characteristics, in conjunction with the basal slope and channel structure development as the migration or kinematics of MTCs. Five seismic facies categories and dynamic traits—compression ridges, thrust faults, slides, grooves and slope terraces are distinguished in MTCs. Based on attributes maps and geomorphological interpretations, MTCs is segmented into four zones, showing combined effects of levée, basal slopes, and megaclast clusters on its migration. Lithological and topographical variations along these features modulate erosion properties and MTCs mobility, with base height shifts guiding local migration trajectories. The results of megaclast parameters in Zones 1 and 3 tune our understanding of stress patterns and directionality shifts, highlighting the complex dynamics at play. Notably, the differential motion triggered by levees instigates longitudinal shear zones. At critical migration disparities, MTCs fracture at these weak points, discharging pore pressure and filling fractures with fines, birthing “promontory” formations marked by low-amplitude fills. This work, therefore, establishes a groundbreaking migratory model that synthesizes the impacts of levees height, rock type variability, and megaclasts accumulation intensity, depicting a fragmented migration pattern. This study not only enriches our grasp of MTCs behavior in deep-water contexts but also furnishes a robust scientific foundation and predictive tool for gauging the hazards that MTCs may pose to underwater structures, thus carrying substantial theoretical and applied significance.

Re‐Evaluating Water Column Reoxygenation During the End Permian Mass Extinction

AbstractOcean anoxia is considered a key driver of the end‐Permian mass extinction (EPME). However, it is much debated whether there was an ocean reoxygenation phase during, and in the aftermath, of the EPME. Evidence for ocean reoxygenation is often inferred from the absence of framboidal pyrite in some boundary marine sediments (termed the “framboid gap”). To reconstruct ocean redox evolution across the EPME, we investigated the carbon isotopic, sedimentological, and redox records of the Ruichang and Ehtan sections in South China. These documents two negative δ13Ccarb excursions and the development of anoxia associated with deepening leading up to the Permian‐Triassic boundary. Above the level at which most siliceous organisms became extinct, pyrite framboid and iron proxies indicate that water column redox conditions were predominantly oxygenated but sporadically anoxic/ferruginous [non‐sulfidic, free Fe(II) in the water] at Ruichang, while ferruginous conditions were more widely developed at Ehtan. These contrasting redox states are characteristic of a dynamic ocean redox landscape in the extinction interval. The “framboid gap” is seen in strata deposited under both oxic and ferruginous conditions, suggesting that the availability of decomposable organic matter for sulfate reduction additionally controlled framboid genesis. Our data confirm that oxygenated conditions were developed in some deep water basins during the EPME.

METHODS OF MINIMIZING THE RISKS OF CAVITATION IN UNDERWATER PIPELINES

In the article, the classification of various loads that affect underwater pipelines during construction and operation is given. Offshore pipelines are subject to bending moment, hydrostatic pressure, tension, waves, and currents. In addition, the issues of determining the load that the pipeline can withstand or, conversely, the thickness of the pipe wall corresponding to the given load were also considered. At great depths, where the external pressure (hydrostatic pressure) is greater than what can be released, the pipeline is crushed, and the accident propagates along the length at a high speed. Therefore, it is recommended to protect pipelines in deepwater basins from possible crushing. Also, an overview of cavitation is given, and the conditions and consequences of its occurrence, currently known as a hydraulic phenomenon, are listed. It is noted that despite the negative effect of the cavitation factor, it is possible to use it for useful purposes. It is also shown that such effects can be applied in perspectival technologies by preserving them in new nanoobjects at meso and microscales.

Mesozoic clastic provenance during post-rift evolution of the Essaouira Agadir Basin, Northern Morocco

This study combines several provenance tools, analysis of published structural and geodynamic data, integrated with Low-Temperature Thermochronology (LTT) and time-Temperature Modelling (tTM) to reconstruct the evolution of source-to-sink systems feeding the Essaouira-Agadir Basin (EAB) during the Jurassic (Toarcian, Bathonian, and Kimmeridgian) and Lower Cretaceous (Hauterivian and Barremian).LTT and tTM define timing and rate of subsidence and exhumation of the hinterland and allows modelling of the predicted age and lithology of eroding rock units from the most-likely source locations through time. Extrapolation of predicted surface geology allows recognition of the lithology of sedimentary overburden in the hinterland, much of which has been subsequently eroded and is not preserved in the modern surfical geological record.Heavy mineral, petrography and detrital zircon data analysis was carried out on fluvial and shallow marine sandstones sampled from Jurassic and Cretaceous sections across in the EAB. The results document changing sediment source terrains through time. In the Early and Middle Jurassic, the heavy mineral and detrital zircon signature correlates with a Palaeozoic source, suggesting provenance was dominantly from erosion of Cambrian and Ordovician sandstone in the Central and Western Anti-Atlas. From the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, the heavy mineral and zircon signatures have a strong affinity with Triassic sediments. This indicates a provenance switch to the exhuming West Moroccan Arch (MAM and Western Meseta), interpreted to have been largely covered by Triassic continental red beds at the time.The results help in predicting sediment delivery offshore, into the deep-water basin, where sandstones are a target for hydrocarbon exploration. Defining timing of input, location and composition helps to de-risk exploration. All the intervals examined contained discrete fluvial systems entering in the EAB, suggesting multiple periods of clastic delivery. Results suggest the Middle Jurassic and Hauterivian and Barremian intervals offer the optimum time for delivery of coarse clastics to the shelf margin, and potentially into the deep basin. The source to sink maps developed in this study further characterize these systems, their provenance and timing.

Studies of Hydrogen Sulfide Contamination of the Deep-Water Basin of the Middle Caspian Sea During Cruise of the R/V “Issledovatel Kaspiya” September 2022

Results of the comprehensive studies of hydrological and chemical structure of the Middle and Northern Caspian Sea carried out aboard r/v “Issledovatel Kaspiya” in September 2022 are presented. It is shown, despite the continuing decrease in sea level, there is no aeration of the deep layers, the hydrogen sulfide layer persists with a tendency to increase the concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the bottom layer. There is an increase of the oxygen minimum zone. The changes of the Caspian Sea ecosystem have led to a weakening of the removal of nutrients from the photic layer into the bottom layers and, as a consequence, a decrease in the concentration of silicon in the bottom layer. The results obtained will allow to evaluate the trends of ongoing changes.

Sediment bypass in a marl-dominated margin of a turbidite system in a narrow basin setting

Submarine sediment density flows play a pivotal role in transporting clastic material to the deep sea. The volume of sediment they transport, which bypasses a specific point or geographical location, shapes the stratigraphic record of the entire turbidite systems. Hence, recognition of bypass-dominated zones is crucial in facies prediction and understanding the architecture of turbidite systems. This understanding is linked to the economic aspects of exploring hydrocarbon deposits, the occurrence of geohazards that impact submarine infrastructure, the distribution of pollutants, and carbon sequestration.In the western part of the Ropianka Fm (Skole Nappe, Polish Outer Carpathians), three bed types showing evidence of sediment bypass were identified in the channel-mouth setting of marl-dominated slope and base-of-slope successions. The varying proportions of these bed types in studied successions and relationship with adjacent facies associations led to the identification of two channel-mouth zones. This study provides insights into deposits with characteristics differing from the previously described channel-mouth setting, evidenced by a significantly lower sand-to-mud ratio and smaller scale of erosional and depositional structures. The reported channel-mouth zones are interpreted as the marginal parts of a channel mouth, formed by subcritical flows. This study broadens the understanding of the channel-mouth setting by introducing dynamic and mud-dominated zones that experience sediment bypass and weak erosion. The identified bed types and typical characteristics of Marginal channel-mouth zones 1 and 2 can serve as a reference for interpreting marginal areas of channel-mouth settings in mud-dominated successions with scattered thin-bedded and coarse-grained deposits in other deep-water basins.

New understanding on the interplay of longitudinal and transverse sediment dispersal: Combination of 3D seismic profile and u-pb ages of detrital zircons of Paleogene sedimentary rocks in the northern South China Sea

The northern South China Sea (SCS) experienced a significant transition from a lacustrine to marine environment in the Paleogene, and its deep-water basin of Zhu-II Depression is in particular extensively studied due to its richness in oil and gas resources. However, limited number of boreholes in the deep-water area has long constrained a better understanding on the provenance of the Paleogene strata and the associated sediment transport processes. In this study, detrital zircon U-Pb ages and three-dimensional (3D) seismic-reflection data were systematically employed to investigate the “source-to-sink” pathways and interplay of longitudinal and transverse sediment dispersal. Our results indicate that the Zhu-II Depression sediments of the northern SCS were predominantly derived from the surrounding nearby paleo-uplifts in the early and middle Eocene. A significant provenance shift took place in the late Eocene, when the local paleo-uplift source was replaced by a distant source from the western SCS. Sediments were transported from west to east by the “Kontum-Ying-Qiong River” as a longitudinal dispersal. In the Oligocene, the “Kontum-Ying-Qiong River” delivered large amounts of sediments from Central Vietnam to the eastern part of the northern SCS. Meanwhile, the Pearl River gradually evolved through regional tectonic processes and influenced the deep-water area of Zhu-II Depression as a transverse dispersal. Sediments from both “Kontum-Ying-Qiong” and Pearl Rivers converged and deposited as deep-water deltas in the Zhu-II Depression. This dual provenance system in the northern SCS deep-water area was featured by the interplay between longitudinal and transverse sediment dispersal. It was largely controlled by the tectonic-palaeogeographic pattern inherited from the Mesozoic arc system.

Continued warming of deep waters in the Fram Strait

Abstract. The Fram Strait is the only deep gateway between the Arctic and the rest of the World Ocean, and it is thus a key region to understand how the deep Arctic will evolve. However, studies and data regarding the deep ocean are scarce, making it difficult to understand its role in the climate system. Here, we analyse oceanographic data obtained close to the Fram Strait sill depth of 2500 m by two long-term mooring locations (F11 and HG-FEVI) in the Fram Strait between 2010–2023 to investigate long-term changes in the hydrographic properties. For additional context, we compile hydrographic profile data from the 1980s for the adjacent basins: the Greenland Sea and the Eurasian Basin. At mooring F11 in the western Fram Strait, we find a clear seasonality, with increased Greenland Sea Deep Water (GSDW) presence during summer and increased Eurasian Basin Deep Water (EBDW) presence during winter. Evaluating long-term changes, we find a modest temperature increase of ∼ 0.1 °C for EBDW from the 1980s. For GSDW, south of the Fram Strait, we find a strong temperature increase of ∼ 0.4–0.5 °C for the same period. The different warming rates have led to GSDW becoming warmer than EBDW since ∼ 2017–2018. This means that the Greenland Sea is no longer a heat sink for the Arctic Ocean at depth but is rather a heat source. It is therefore possible that EBDW temperatures will increase faster in the future.

An Ediacaran glacial deposit in southern margin of the North China Craton: The Luoquan Formation—sedimentology, geochronology and provenance

The end of the Neoproterozoic global ice age has promoted the evolution of the Earth's surface system and initiated the ‘Great Explosion of Life’. Glaciation deposits provide valuable insights into the extreme climate conditions. In the southern margin of the North China Craton (NCC), an Ediacaran glacial deposit named ‘Luoquan Formation’ has been recently described in Luonan County, Shaanxi Province. It has significant characteristics of dark grey and black glacial deposits. Through extensive research in sedimentology, geochemistry and geochronology, the glacial sedimentary evolution sequence of the Luoquan Formation has been established. This research also help to define the age of the formation and reveal its provenance and sedimentary environment. The study reveals that four lithofacies associations were identified in the Luoquan Formation: diamictites, carbonates, dropstone‐bearing rock and black shale. The Luoquan Formation has experienced three cycles of glacial advance–retreat. Sedimentological evidence suggests that the sedimentary environments of the Luoquan Formation evolved from subglacial (diamictite) to intertidal, then to intertidal lagoon, or from subglacial deposits to shoreface (inner shelf, subtidal), then to deep water basin and fine‐grained turbidite and ice‐rafting. The age of the Luoquan Formation is estimated to be 562–550 Ma constrained by indirect chronological and paleontological data, maybe representing an Upper Ediacaran glaciation that occurred later than the Gaskiers glaciation. The overall age profile of detrital zircons from the Luoquan Formation can be divided into six groups, ranging from 1.1 to 1.6, 1.85 to 1.95, ~2.1, ~2.3, ~2.5 and 2.65 to 2.9 Ga. These age groups are consistent with the Archean to Meso‐Neoproterozoic magmatic–tectonic events in the southern margin of NCC, indicating they are ascribed to an origination directly from the southern margin of NCC. The Luoquan Formation exhibits the characteristics of isochronous and different sedimentary facies, with the glacial front moving from north to south. The discovery of Luoquan Formation in Lianshuigou section not only reflects the important significance of the restoration and reconstruction of the Ediacaran ice age, paleoenvironment and palaeogeography of the NCC but also provides significant evidence to support the further subdivision and correlation within the Ediacaran glacial deposits globally.

Three-dimensional reconstruction of high latitude bamboo coral via X-ray microfocus Computed Tomography

The skeletons of long-lived bamboo coral (Family Keratoisididae) are promising archives for deep-water palaeoceanographic reconstructions as they can record environmental variation at sub-decadal resolution in locations where in-situ measurements lack temporal coverage. Yet, detailed three dimensional (3D) characterisations of bamboo coral skeletal architecture are not routinely available and non-destructive investigations into microscale variations in calcification are rare. Here, we provide high-resolution micro-focus computed tomography (µCT) data of skeletal density for two species of bamboo coral (Acanella arbuscula: 5 specimens, voxel size, 15 µm (central branch scans) and 50 µm (complete structure scan); Keratoisis sp.: 4 specimens, voxel size, 15 µm) collected from the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay deep-water basins, Eastern Canadian Arctic. These data provide reference models useful for developing methods to assess structural integrity and other fine-scale complexities in many biological, geological, and industrial systems. This will be of wider value to those investigating structural composition, arrangement and/or composition of complex architecture within the fields and subdisciplines of biology, ecology, medicine, environmental geology, and structural engineering.

Influence of Microbial Activities on Fluorescent Dissolved Organic Matter in the Dark Canada Basin Waters

AbstractThe fluorescence characteristics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) were measured to determine the distribution and drivers of DOM in the dark Canada Basin waters. We studied the relationship between fluorescent DOM (FDOM) and apparent oxygen utilization (AOU) in the whole water column as well as in the main water masses (Pacific Winter Water, Atlantic halocline (AH), Atlantic water—Fram Strait and Barents Sea branches, Deep Temperature Minimum, and Canada Basin deep water). The relative water mass fractions of different water masses were estimated using a five end‐members mixing model. The distribution of water mass fractions was found to be in good agreement with the distribution based on the traditional temperature‐salinity diagram. The fractions of AH waters were linked with AOU, highlighting the significant role played by mineralization in shaping AH humic‐like levels. The slope of the relationship between in situ FDOM—AOU was greater than those reported in the other oceans worldwide. This suggests that the AH is a hot spot for microbial mineralization of humic‐like DOM. On the other hand, the relationships with the humic‐like intensities differed among the four humic‐like components in the >125 m waters, indicating distinct environmental dynamics and biogeochemical roles for each humic‐like component.

Vertical water renewal and dissolved oxygen depletion in a semi-enclosed Sea

The limited water renewal in semi-enclosed seas may contribute to the oxygen deficiency and thereby may exacerbate the ecological degradation. Previous research has focused more on horizontal water renewal, while the role of vertical water renewal remains poorly documented despite its significance to the bottom oxygen supply. This study explores the vertical water renewal process in the Bohai Sea, a semi-enclosed sea prone to oxygen deficiency, by developing a water age model, incorporated into a developed Delft3D hydrodynamic model. Findings unveiled the key role of thermal stratification, tides, and winds on vertical water renewal. Results revealed significant spatial heterogeneity and seasonal variations in water age in the Bohai Sea. During summer, stratified from the upper water column, the deep basin water age can reach up to 30 days. Thermal stratification was crucial in regulating vertical water renewal, acting as a constraint and impediment. Spring tides and neap tides can positively and negatively influence vertical water renewal by strengthening and weakening thermal stratification, respectively. Wind forces intensified the vertical water exchange by changing the flow field structure. Additionally, higher bottom water age coincides with the oxygen-poor areas and deep-water regions. Based on this, we employed the product of the oxygen consumption rate and the bottom water age (oxygen consumption duration) to approximate oxygen depletion. This method was applied to successfully estimate vertical oxygen depletion in the Bohai Sea. The findings will serve environmental management and oxygen-poor attribution analysis.

Shipwreck and Sherbrook supersequence regional gross depositional environments, offshore Otway Basin

The Shipwreck and Sherbrook supersequences together constitute the upper Cretaceous succession in the Otway Basin that was deposited during an extensional basin phase. In the Shipwreck Trough, where the upper Cretaceous succession is well explored, gas fields are hosted by the Shipwreck Supersequence (SS). Elsewhere, the upper Cretaceous interval is lightly explored, and the deep-water area is considered an exploration frontier. We present regional gross depositional environment (RGDE) maps for the LC1.1 and LC1.2 sequences of the Shipwreck SS, and the LC2 Sherbrook SS. Fluvial Plain, Coastal-Delta Plain and Shelf RGDEs were interpreted from wireline logs, cores, and seismic facies. The Fluvial Plain and Coastal-Delta Plain RGDEs are mostly restricted to the inboard platform areas and the inner Morum Sub-basin. The mud-prone Shelf RGDE is widespread across the deep-water Morum and Nelson depocentres. The extent of the Fluvial and Coastal-Delta Plain belts progressively increases up-section, imparting a regressive aspect to the succession, and delineating a large fluvial-deltaic complex in the north-west of the basin. Thick seal development across the greater Shipwreck Trough, potentially mature source rocks in the deep-water basin, and thick reservoir development in the hanging wall of growth faults in the inner Morum Sub-basin are insights derived from this study, and will inform area selection for detailed gross depositional environment mapping, formulation of new hydrocarbon and carbon dioxide storage plays, and inputs for petroleum systems modelling.

The Life and Death of Jamoytius kerwoodi White; A Silurian Jawless Nektonic Herbivore?

Jamoytius kerwoodi, is a primitive, eel-like jawless vertebrate found uniquely in an Early Silurian (Llandovery epoch; 444–433 Ma) horizon near Lesmahagow, Scotland. This species is a rare component of a low-diversity dominantly nektonic detritus-feeding and herbivorous fauna living over an anoxic bottom and is found at the transition from a marine-influenced, probably brackish-water, deep-water basin to a shallower-water, less saline and likely freshwater basin. In the absence of true teeth, Jamoytius was probably a detritivore or herbivore feeding on Dictyocaris. Jamoytius may have a common ancestor with living lampreys, especially as their ectoparasitic mode of life might have evolved from ancestral detritivores or herbivores.

Hydrogen Sulfide Contamination Studies in the Deep-Water Basin of the Middle Caspian Sea during a Cruise of the R/V Issledovatel Kaspiya in September 2022

Hydrogen Sulfide Contamination Studies in the Deep-Water Basin of the Middle Caspian Sea during a Cruise of the R/V Issledovatel Kaspiya in September 2022

Element geochemical differences in lower Cambrian black shales with hydrothermal sedimentation in the Yangtze block, South China

Abstract Hydrothermal activities occurred in the Yangtze block, South China, and affected the process of black shale sedimentation in the early Cambrian. Their specific influences, such as the sources, sedimentary environment, and mineralization, have not yet been revealed. Fortunately, the influences are explained through the geochemistry comparison of different wells FY1, XJ1, HY1, and XA1 in northwestern Hunan. The outcomes of the tectonic setting, distinguishable by element indicators, are disorganized. This is caused by the variable element composition, sedimentary recirculation of material source, and hydrothermal materials. FY1, the closest well to Zhangjiajie where Ni–Mo ores were formed by hydrothermal sedimentation, has more different features on the elemental geochemistry, but many indexes still indicate that it is normal sediments. XA1, which is far from the other wells and deposited in the deep-water basin, has significantly more differences in geochemical properties and shows more about normal marine deposition. XJ1 and HY1 are intermediate between them. Based on these wells, the hydrothermal contribution to the black shale sedimentation is not significant. However, some contents of trace and rare earth elements change widely because hydrothermal materials can diffuse and deposit over long distances. The concentration of Ag, As, Ba, Mo, Ba, U, and V generally has dozens of times higher than that of Upper Continental Crust. The early Cambrian environment was primarily anoxic/euxinic with enough sulfur, which is beneficial for enriching metal elements and organic matter. The sequence FY1, XJ1, HY1, and XA1 in turn has the same performance on the distance with Zhangjiajie, different intervals of suboxic environment and element enrichment, and hydrothermal-fluid-addition Ni abundance. Therefore, hydrothermal processes indeed provide materials for element enrichment and support the reducing environment, but the impact of hydrothermal activity decreases on the plane.

The complex interaction between channel–levee systems and mass transport complexes in the Pliocene–Quaternary Rakhine Basin, offshore Myanmar

Channel–levee systems (CLSs) and mass transport complexes (MTCs) are prevalent in deep-water basins, yet their interplay remains enigmatic. This study uses high-resolution 3D seismic data to investigate the architecture of CLSs and MTCs, aiming to explore how CLSs influence the distribution of MTCs in the Rakhine Basin, Bay of Bengal. Two models are built to illustrate the interaction between CLSs and MTCs. In the first model, large-scale aggradational CLSs created unfilled relief in their overbank environments, which acted as spatially confined topography for subsequent mass-wasting deposits. In this model, the interaction between large-scale CLSs and confined MTCs controls the distribution of confined MTCs. In the second model, laterally migrating CLSs do not create such prominent topographic relief in their overbank environments. This characteristic renders them inconsequential in influencing the distribution of subsequent mass-wasting processes. Consequently, spatially extensive MTCs develop within unconfined settings. This configuration gives rise to lithological traps, which might be common and represent potential drilling targets on continental margins. This study could contribute to a better understanding of the interplay between CLSs and MTCs and have some enlightenment on looking to provide some insight into the search for lithological traps in the Rakhine Basin.

Characteristics of Deepwater Oil and Gas Distribution along the Silk Road and Their Controlling Factors

Deepwater regions have emerged as pivotal domains for global oil and gas exploration and development, serving as strategic alternatives to conventional resources. The Silk Road region is distinguished by its abundant oil and gas reserves and stands as a leading arena for worldwide exploration and development in the oil and gas sector. Since 2012, a series of atmospheric fields have been discovered in the deep sea of the Luwuma Basin and the Tanzania Basin, with cumulative recoverable reserves reaching 4.4 × 1012 and 8.3 × 1011 m3, including multiple oil and gas fields ranking among the top ten global discoveries at that time. Profound advancements have been achieved in the exploration of deepwater oil and gas reserves along the Silk Road. However, deepwater oil and gas exploration presents challenges, such as high development costs and risks, leading to certain areas remaining underexplored and exhibiting a relatively low level of exploration activity, thereby hinting at considerable untapped potential. Deepwater sedimentary basins along the Silk Road predominantly adhere to a distribution pattern characterized as “one horizontal and one vertical”. The “horizontal” dimension refers to the deepwater basin grouping within the Neo-Tethys tectonic domain, primarily extending from east to west. Conversely, the “vertical” dimension denotes the deepwater basin grouping along the East African continental margin, predominantly extending from north to south. Recent discoveries of deepwater oil and gas reserves validate the presence of foundational elements within Silk Road basins conducive to the formation of substantial oil and gas reservoirs and the establishment of efficient migration pathways. Despite these achievements, exploration activities in deepwater oil and gas resources along the Silk Road remain relatively limited. Future exploration endeavors in deepwater regions will predominantly focus on identifying structural and lithological traps. In the deepwater areas of the Bay of Bengal, the emphasis is on lithological traps formed by Neogene turbidite sandstone deposits. In the deepwater regions of Pakistan, the focus shifts to lithological traps emerging from Neogene bio-reefs and river-channel sandstone accumulations. Along the deepwater coastline of East Africa, the focus is on lithological traps formed by nearshore Mesozoic–Cenozoic bio-reefs and seafloor turbidite sandstone formations. Within the deepwater regions of Southeast Asia, the primary objective is to locate large structural-type oil and gas fields. Analyzing the characteristics of oil and gas discoveries in deepwater areas aims to enhance the theory of the control of the formation of deepwater oil and gas, providing valuable insights for predicting future exploration directions.