Deep Seismic Reflection Profiles Research Articles

Large explosive shot gathers along the SinoProbe deep seismic reflection profile and Moho depth beneath the Qiangtang terrane in central Tibet

Owing to extreme topography, rapid velocity and thickness variation of near-surface layer and strong seismic attenuation through the thickest crust of the Earth, it is not easy to acquire reflective Moho in central Tibet. However, with help from the SinoProbe deep seismic reflection experiment, large explosive of 1000 kg seismic sources have been tentatively detonated in the Qiangtang terrane and good quality data were acquired. Compared with multifold data, the single-fold record from single shot gather can also show clear Moho image in the Qiangtang terrane. Moho reflection appears at ∼ 24 s TWT (∼ 75.1 km) in the northernmost Lhasa terrane and at about 21 ∼ 20 s TWT (65.7 - 62.6 km) beneath the Qiangtang terrane. We speculate that Moho gets 9.4 km-12.5 km shallower from the Lhasa to the Qiangtang terrane rather than a 20 km offset. There is no obvious change of Moho depth across the Shung Hu suture.

Basin architecture and evolution in the Mount Isa mineral province, northern Australia: Constraints from deep seismic reflection profiling and implications for ore genesis

Deep seismic reflection profiling confirms that the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic Mount Isa mineral province comprises three vertically stacked and partially inverted sedimentary basins preserving a record of intracontinental rifting followed by passive margin formation. Passive margin conditions were established no later than 1655Ma before being interrupted by plate convergence, crustal shortening and basin-wide inversion at 1640Ma in both the 1730–1640Ma Calvert and 1790–1740Ma Leichhardt superbasins. Crustal extension and thinning resumed after 1640 Ma with formation of the 1635–1575Ma Isa Superbasin and continued up to ca. 1615Ma when extensional faulting ceased and a further episode of basin inversion commenced. The 1575Ma Century Pb–Zn ore-body is hosted by syn-inversion sediments deposited during the initial stages of the Isan Orogeny with basin inversion accommodated on east- or northeast-dipping reactivated intrabasinal extensional faults and footwall shortcut thrusts. These structures extend to considerable depths and served as fluid conduits during basin inversion, tapping thick syn-rift sequences of immature siliciclastic sediments floored by bimodal volcanic sequences from which the bulk of metals and mineralising fluids are thought to have been sourced. Basin inversion and fluid expulsion at this stage were entirely submarine consistent with a syn-sedimentary to early diagenetic origin for Pb–Zn mineralisation at, or close to, the seafloor. Farther east, a change from platform carbonates to deeper water continental slope deposits (Kuridala and Soldiers Cap groups) marks the position of the original shelf break along which the north–south-striking Selwyn-Mount Dore structural corridor developed. This corridor served as a locus for strain partitioning, fluid flow and iron oxide–copper–gold mineralisation during and subsequent to the onset of basin inversion and peak metamorphism in the Isan Orogeny at 1585Ma. An episode of post-orogenic strike-slip faulting and hydrothermal alteration associated with the subvertical Cloncurry Fault Zone overprints west- to southwest-dipping shear zones that extend beneath the Cannington Pb–Zn deposit and are antithetic to inverted extensional faults farther west in the same sub-basin. Successive episodes of basin inversion and mineralisation were driven by changes in the external stress field and related plate tectonic environment as evidenced by a corresponding match to bends in the polar wander path for northern Australia. An analogous passive margin setting has been described for Pb–Zn mineralisation in the Paleozoic Selwyn Basin of western Canada.

The lithosphere structure of the Great Xing’an Range in the eastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Constrains from the joint geophysical profiling

The Great Xing’an Range is characterized by a complex crustal history involving the successive development of several Paleozoic to Mesozoic tectonic domains. A set of new different geophysical data, including deep seismic reflection profile, seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection profile, and magnetotelluric survey, were conducted recently to establish the lithosphere structure and geodynamic framework of the Great Xing’an Range and adjacent basins. Results based on the interpretation of the integrated geophysical data include the discovery of the “crocodile” style assembly fabric of the Songnen and Xing’an blocks; the intrusion of the Great Xing’an Range continental crust into the Songnen block while the mantle lithosphere of the Songnen block beneath the Xing’an block. The Great Xing’an Range experienced the delamination and the underplating, which is very common in the eastern part of Central Asian Orogenic Belt. The building of the Great Xing’an Range could divide into two phases: (a) the crustal shortening and overlapping resulted from the compression between the Songnen and Xing’an blocks in late Devonian to early Carboniferous; (b) the vertical building by the upwelling and underplating of the magmas in Mesozoic and Cenozoic.

Major crustal boundaries of Australia, and their significance in mineral systems targeting

For over 35years, deep seismic reflection profiles have been acquired routinely across Australia to better understand the crustal architecture and geodynamic evolution of key geological provinces and basins. Major crustal-scale breaks have been interpreted in some of the profiles, and are often inferred to be relict sutures between different crustal blocks, as well as sometimes being important conduits for mineralising fluids to reach the upper crust. The widespread coverage of the seismic profiles now allows the construction of a new map of major crustal boundaries across Australia, which will better define the architecture of the crustal blocks in three dimensions. It also enables a better understanding of how the Australian continent was constructed from the Mesoarchean through to the Phanerozoic, and how this evolution and these boundaries have controlled metallogenesis. Starting with the locations in 3D of the crustal breaks identified in the seismic profiles, geological (e.g. outcrop mapping, drill hole, geochronology, isotope) and geophysical (e.g. gravity, aeromagnetic, magnetotelluric) data are used to map the crustal boundaries, in plan view, away from the seismic profiles. Some of the boundaries mapped are subsurface boundaries, and, in many cases, occur several kilometres below the surface; hence they will not match directly with structures mapped at the surface. For some of these boundaries, a high level of confidence can be placed on the location, whereas the location of other boundaries can only be considered to have medium or low confidence. In other areas, especially in regions covered by thick sedimentary successions, the locations of some crustal boundaries are essentially unconstrained, unless they have been imaged by a seismic profile. From the Mesoarchean to the Phanerozoic, the continent formed by the amalgamation of many smaller crustal blocks over a period of nearly 3billionyears. The identification of crustal boundaries in Australia, and the construction of an Australia-wide GIS dataset and map, will help to constrain tectonic models and plate reconstructions for the geological evolution of Australia, and will provide constraints on the three dimensional architecture of Australia. Deep crustal-penetrating structures, particularly major crustal boundaries, are important conduits to transport mineralising fluids from the mantle and lower crust into the upper crust. There are several greenfields regions across Australia where deep crustal-penetrating structures have been imaged in seismic sections, and have potential as possible areas for future mineral systems exploration.

Geophysical constraints on the crustal structure of the East European Platform margin and its foreland based on the POLCRUST-01 deep reflection seismic profile

A new 240-km long, deep seismic reflection profile (POLCRUST-01) was recently acquired in SE Poland crossing the East European Platform (EEP) margin south-east of the North-German–Polish Caledonides (NGPC). Here we document geophysical field work and subsequent data processing and modeling. Results obtained from reflection seismic data are augmented by results of the first-arrival tomography applied to co-located extended-offset refraction data, as well as potential field modeling and comparison with the available wide-angle reflection/refraction data. Our preferred model of the crustal structure, derived by integrating seismic, potential field and geological data, is composed of crustal blocks (terranes) separated by nearly-vertical faults. These are: (I) intact part of the EEP; (II) Łysogóry Terrane; (III) Małopolska Terrane; and (IV) Carpathian Mts. with their basement. Reflective lower crust of the EEP can be an inherited feature of crustal extension (rifting) or compressional tectonics acting at the cratonic margin. The Teisseyre–Tornquist Zone (TTZ) is depicted as a Caledonian transcurrent accretion zone corresponding with the near-vertical Tomaszów Fault, bounding the Łysogóry Terrane to the east. The crust of the Łysogóry Terrane suggests EEP affinity, although its middle/lower crust thickness is highly reduced. The Małopolska Terrane seems to be internally subdivided into blocks of different magnetic properties of the lower crust. The Carpathian frontal thrust is associated with a change in the rock properties in the deep basement (an unknown crustal block?) which is not visible in seismic data alone. The interpreted structure of the Caledonian terranes and their tectonic boundaries favors a transcurrent style of a crustal accretion along the central and SE Polish segments of the TTZ, implying a very complex nature of the Caledonian accretionary belt of Central Europe: from an array of terranes displaced along the TTZ to an accretionary wedge of the collisional NGPC orogen between NW Poland and southern North Sea area.

Crustal structure and geodynamics of the Middle and Lower reaches of Yangtze metallogenic belt and neighboring areas: Insights from deep seismic reflection profiling

A 300km long seismic reflection profile was acquired across the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River (MLY) metallogenic belt and its adjacent areas. The objective of the survey was to establish the deep architecture and geodynamic framework of the region. Results based on the interpretation of the deep seismic data include (1) Tan-Lu fault appears as a subvertical thrust fault or transpression fault with its deep portion dipping toward the southeast; (2) the Zhangbaling uplift is squeezed out along this fault; (3) complex upper crustal deformation structures beneath the Chuquan depression include both kink bands, thrusts, imbrication and fold structures reflecting contraction deformation, and detachment fault and normal-fault structures reflecting extensional deformation; (4) the “crocodile” reflection structure emerging beneath the Tan-Lu fault and Ningwu–Lishui volcanic basin, which represents the decoupled deformation process of the upper and lower crust associated with intra-continental subduction; (5) further to the southeast, the upper crust deformation shows a large-scale “wave-form” pattern, making crustal scale syncline and anticline; (6) the entire section of the reflection Moho is clearly discernible at depth of 30.0–34.5km, and the Moho beneath the Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River metallogenic belt is shallowest, while the Moho beneath the North China block is deeper than that beneath the Yangtze block. The Moho offsets could be seen beneath the Ningwu volcanic basin.The seismic reflection data suggest that lithosphere delamination and asthenosphere upwelling that may result from the Mesozoic intra-continental orogenesis is responsible for the formation of large scale magmatism and mineralization in the MLY metallogenic belt.

Fine crustal structure and deformation beneath the Great Xing’an Ranges, CAOB: Revealed by deep seismic reflection profile

A crustal seismic reflection profile across the Great Xing’an Ranges (GXAR) was recorded in 2011 revealed features of crustal structure and deformation at the eastern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). The reliability of crust and upper mantle image was improved by rigorous regulations of seismic data acquisition and a series of special procedures for seismic data processing. The diversiform seismic reflection fabrics within deep-crust to mantle transition zone (TWT (Two-way time), 12–14s, approximately 36–42km) beneath GXAR reflects the complicated products of tectonic and magmatic interaction of lower-crustal and mantle components during evolution of GXAR. Preliminary processing result shows the contact relationship of the GXAR and adjacent basins. We can identify lots of curved reflection phases from volcanic rock and opposite Moho reflection events. This scenario may suggest multi-times tectonic transformation from contraction to extension. Presumably, its cause of formation reflects the comprehensive dynamic action of the Mongolia-Okhotsk tectonic system and the Circum Pacific tectonic system.

Seismic imaging of the geodynamic activity at the western Eger rift in central Europe

The western Eger rift at the Czech–German border in central Europe is an important geodynamically active area within the European Cenzoic rift system (ECRS) in the forelands of the Alps. Along with two other active areas of the ECRS, the French Massif Central and the east and west Eifel volcanic fields, it is characterized by numerous CO2-rich fluid emission points and frequent micro-seismicity. Existence of a plume(s) is indicated in the upper mantle which may be responsible for these observations. Here we reprocess a pre-existing deep seismic reflection profile ‘9HR’ and interpret the subsurface structures as mapped by seismic reflectivity with previous findings, mainly from seismological and geochemical studies, to investigate the geodynamic activity in the subsurface. We find prominent hints of pathways which may allow magmatic fluids originating in the upper mantle to rise through the crust and cause the observed fluid emanations and earthquake activity.

Variation of Moho Depth across Bangong-Nujiang Suture in Central Tibet—Results from Deep Seismic Reflection Data

There is a long-term dispute at Moho depth across the Bangong-Nujiang suture (BNS). Due to the complicated and changeable seismic geological condition, it is not easy to acquire images of the reflective Moho in central Tibet. In the support of the SinoProbe project, a series of deep seismic reflection profiles were conducted to image Moho structure across the BNS and the Qiangtang terrane. These profiles extend from the northern Lhasa terrane to the Qiangtang terrane crossing the BNS. Both shot gathers and migration data show clear Moho images beneath the BNS. The Moho depth varies from 75.1 km (~24 s TWT) beneath the northmost Lhasa terrane to 68.9 km (~22 s TWT) beneath southmost Qiangtang terrane, and rises smoothly to 62.6 km (~20 s TWT ) at ~28 km north of the BNS beneath the Qiangtang terrane. We speculate that the Moho appears a 6.2 km sharp offset across the BNS and becomes ~12.5 km shallower from the northmost Lhasa terrane to the south Qiangtang terrane at ~28 km north of the BNS. The viewpoint of Moho depth across the BNS based on deep seismic reflection data is inconsistent with the previous 20 km offset.

Transcurrent nature of the Teisseyre–Tornquist Zone in Central Europe: results of the POLCRUST-01 deep reflection seismic profile

Teisseyre–Tornquist Zone (TTZ) corresponds to a crustal boundary between the Precambrian East European Platform (EEP) and the Palaeozoic West European Platform. Although the zone has been controlling Phanerozoic evolution of large parts of Central Europe, its course, geometry and origin are still poorly constrained. Deep reflection seismic profile POLCRUST-01, recently acquired in SE Poland, for the first time allowed a precise comparison of the Ediacaran and later tectonic patterns to the deep crustal features of the TTZ and adjacent areas. The TTZ corresponds to the subvertical Tomaszow Fault separating the Radom–Kraśnik Elevation, composed of the typical EEP crust, from the Bilgoraj–Narol Block (BNB) in the SW, with a thinned crystalline basement showing affinities to the EEP crust. The BNB is a part of the larger Caledonian Łysogory Terrane as evidenced by its Lower Palaeozoic stratigraphy and gravity data. Thus, for the first time, the proximal Baltican affinity of this unit has been documented unambiguously. The Łysogory Terrane is delimited from the SW by the subvertical Cieszanow Fault Zone, corresponding to the Holy Cross Suture. The adjacent Malopolska Terrane is characterized by a distinct Early Palaeozoic stratigraphy, and lower-middle crust exhibiting SW-dipping reflective packages interpreted as NE-verging thrust and shear zones of a Neoproterozoic orogen. The observations from the POLCRUST-01 profile and regional comparisons indicate that the TTZ is a major Caledonian transcurrent zone between Poland and East Romania. In central Poland, the TTZ likely forms a narrow subvertical contact between the EEP and a proximal Kuiavia Terrane, as constrained by the deep refraction seismic data. To the NW, the zone extends towards the Pomeranian part of the Caledonide fold-and-thrust belt related to the Avalonia–Baltica collision zone (Thor Suture). South-east of Poland the TTZ corresponds to the Rava Ruska Fault Zone established as a Caledonian suture separating adjacent terrane, probably of a Baltican affinity. The East Romanian part of the TTZ conforms with the Sfântu Gheorghe Fault separating reworked EEP crust of the Pre-Dobrogean Depression from the North Dobrogea unit bearing a strong Variscan and Cimmerian overprint.

Seismotectonic analysis of Hamada oil pool, Libya, using Landsat and seismic data

The distribution of oil and gas accumulations in the Hamada oil pool is strongly influenced by the structural architecture of the study area. An analysis was undertaken to appraise the effectiveness of using the current remote sensing data and deep seismic reflection profiles to evaluate both the surface and subsurface structures of the Hamada oil pool on the western part of Libya. In order to understand the evolution of the southeast Ghadames Basin during Palaeozoic times, the integration of log correlation, seismic interpretation and remote sensing analysis was carried out. The main goal of the remote sensing study was the determination of the structural features of the Qarqaf Arch. The Ghadames Basin and the Al Qarqaf Arch are very large scale, hundreds of kilometres and extremely low-relief “lithospheric waves” of the Saharan Platform. Kilometric to metric folds and faults, which are second-order structures of much lesser scale, affect this basically flat area, providing the required structural complication for the traps to be formed. The main structures detectable in the subsurface by seismic interpretation are normal faults affecting the basement and dividing it into horst and graben systems and positive inversion structures, consisting of compressional gentle folds associated with reverse faults located on the pre-existing normal faults. The extensional movement switched into a compressional one. Deep-seated, flower-like fault systems that are probably transpressional faults were recognised.

Focused exhumation along megathrust splay faults in Prince William Sound, Alaska

Megathrust splay faults are a common feature of accretionary prisms and can be important for generating tsunamis during some subduction zone earthquakes. Here we provide new evidence from Alaska that megathrust splay faults have been conduits for focused exhumation in the last 5 Ma. In most of central Prince William Sound, published and new low-temperature thermochronology data indicate little to no permanent rock uplift over tens of thousands of earthquake cycles. However, in southern Prince William Sound on Montague Island, apatite (U–Th)/He ages are as young as 1.1 Ma indicating focused and rapid rock uplift. Montague Island lies in the hanging wall of the Patton Bay megathrust splay fault system, which ruptured during the 1964 M9.2 earthquake and produced ∼9 m of vertical uplift. Recent geochronology and thermochronology studies show rapid exhumation within the last 5 Ma in a pattern similar to the coseismic uplift in the 1964 earthquake, demonstrating that splay fault slip is a long term (3–5 my) phenomena. The region of slower exhumation correlates with rocks that are older and metamorphosed and constitute a mechanically strong backstop. The region of rapid exhumation consists of much younger and weakly metamorphosed rocks, which we infer are mechanically weak. The region of rapid exhumation is separated from the region of slow exhumation by the newly identified Montague Strait Fault. New sparker high-resolution bathymetry, seismic reflection profiles, and a 2012 Mw4.8 earthquake show this feature as a 75-km-long high-angle active normal fault. There are numerous smaller active normal(?) faults in the region between the Montague Strait Fault and the splay faults. We interpret this hanging wall extension as developing between the rapidly uplifting sliver of younger and weaker rocks on Montague Island from the essentially fixed region to the north. Deep seismic reflection profiles show the splay faults root into the subduction megathrust where there is probable underplating. Thus the exhumation and extension in the hanging wall are likely driven by underplating along the megathrust décollement, thickening in the overriding plate and a change in rheology at the Montague Strait Fault to form a structural backstop. A comparison with other megathrust splay faults around the world shows they have significant variability in their characteristics, and the conditions for their formation are not particularly unique.

Brasiliano crustal structure and the tectonic setting of the Parnaíba basin of NE Brazil: Results of a deep seismic reflection profile

A 1430 km, deep crustal, seismic reflection profile of the Parnaíba basin shows an asymmetric, structured western margin and a gently dipping eastern margin. The ~3 km thick, Phanerozoic sedimentary section overlies a pronounced, planar, regional unconformity that crosses three Precambrian blocks with differing seismic facies: the Amazonian/Araguaia block, the Parnaíba block, and the Borborema block. The blocks are separated by steep crustal-scale boundaries across which seismic facies change abruptly. In the west, the ophiolitic metasedimentary rocks of the Araguaia Group overlie the Amazonian craton. Both craton and metasediments terminate eastward against a steep, east dipping fault zone defining the Amazonian/Araguaia block and Parnaíba block boundary. Reactivation of this Neoproterozoic margin in the Late Triassic and Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous, folded and elevated basement and basin over 2 km. A second crustal boundary defines the eastern margin of the Parnaíba block with the Neoproterozoic Borborema block. This boundary is interpreted as the extension of the Transbrasiliano shear zone. These data demonstrate that the basement of the Parnaíba basin was formed during Brasiliano orogenesis by west directed collision-related thrusting, succeeded by lateral accretion along steep, crustal-scale boundaries. After formation of a post-Brasiliano peneplain, the Parnaíba basin developed seamlessly across three very different crustal blocks and appears to have been significantly larger than its present outline. No extensive underlying rift system is evident suggesting that basement structure had little to do with basin formation, but that episodic reactivation of the boundary zones and basement fabric has controlled the structuring and preservation of the basin.

The crust structures and the connection of the Songpan block and West Qinling orogen revealed by the Hezuo-Tangke deep seismic reflection profiling

The Songpan block in the northeastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP) located at the junction of the E–W- and N–S-trending tectonic belts has affected the formation and evolution of the Chinese continent since Mesozoic and is a tectonic node in the central part of the Chinese continent. In this study, the Hezuo-Tangke deep seismic reflection profiling of the 257km-long was conducted in 2004, which is the first profile across the Songpan block and the West Qinling orogen. We reprocessed the data in 2009, and the results revealed the fine lithosphere structure of the northern margin of the Songpan block and the West Qinling orogen. The results also revealed the connection between the Songpan block and East Kunlun–West Qinling orogeny, indicating that the Songpan block and the West Qinling orogen belong to the same stable continental block and that their lower crusts are both characterized by north-dipping strong reflectors, which provide seismic evidence for subduction of the lower crust of the Songpan block beneath the West Qinling orogen. We found that the sub-horizontal Moho reflectors beneath the West Qinling orogen indicate that it underwent intensive extension after collisional orogeny. The results of this study also indicate that the Kunlun fault did not cut off the Moho. Actually, it terminated at a sub-horizontal decollement in the lowermost crust of Tibet at a depth of ~35km. The data provided through the investigation also are helpful in evaluating prospective oil and gas resources in the Songpan block.

Crustal structure and Moho geometry of the northeastern Tibetan plateau as revealed by SinoProbe-02 deep seismic-reflection profiling

Underthrusting of India below Eurasia has resulted in the formation of the Himalayan and the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Distributed deformation coupled with block translation and rotation has generated the Qilian Shan thrust belt and a series of east- and northwest-striking strike-slip faults across northeastern Tibet. Because these structures lie in a transition zone between the high plateau region to the south and the lowlands of the North China craton in the north, determining their deep-crustal and upper-mantle structures has important implications for unraveling the mechanism of Tibetan plateau formation. In this paper, we present new results from the SinoProbe-02 deep seismic reflection project across the eastern part of the Qilian Shan and the southern margin of the Alxa block. Interpretation of the reflection profile obtained from this study is based on constraints from surface geology and detailed geometric analysis of structural relationships among key reflectors in the crust and the upper mantle. Our results indicate that the upper crust of the eastern Qilian Shan is characterized by fault-bend folds and duplex systems involving Phanerozoic strata that may have resulted from early Paleozoic collisional tectonics and Cenozoic intra-continental deformation. Locally, half-graben structures hosting Cretaceous strata are also present. The active structures in the region are dominated by left-slip Haiyuan and Tianjian fault systems marking the northern margin of the Tibetan plateau. The strike-slip structures have variable dips and dip directions and sole into a common décollement with a depth of 40–45km. Because the two faults do not cut and offset the Moho below, the active crustal and mantle deformation in the northeastern Tibet must be decoupled.

Mechanism on Moho offset induced by aseismic slip of deeply buried faults

Recent high-resolution deep seismic reflection profile across the Kunlun fault in northeastern Tibet shows clearly that the Moho is cut off by a complex thrust fault system. Moho offset is a general phenomenon, but little is known about the dynamic mechanism. In this study, contact models with Maxwell materials are used to simulate the mechanical process of Moho offset induced by the aseismic slip of deeply buried faults. Based on the seismic reflection data, we project a single fault model and a complex fault system model with two faults intersecting. The deformations of the Moho, the aseismic slips, and contact stresses on faults in different models are discussed in detail. Results show that the Moho offset might be produced by aseismic slip of deeply buried faults, and the magnitude is influenced by the friction coefficient of faults and the viscosity of the lower crust. The maximum slip occurs near the Moho on the single fault or at the crossing point of two intersecting faults system. Stress concentrates mainly on the Moho, the deep end of faults, or the crossing point. This study will throw light on understanding the mechanism of Moho offset and aseismic slip of deeply buried faults. The results of complex fault system with two faults intersecting are also useful to understand the shallow intersecting faults that may cause earthquakes.

Crustal deformation styles along the reprocessed deep seismic reflection transect of the Central Iberian Zone (Iberian Peninsula)

Abstract The multichannel normal incidence (230 km long) deep seismic reflection profile ALCUDIA was acquired in summer 2007. This transect samples an intracontinental Variscan orogenic crust going across, from north to south, the major crustal domain (the Central Iberian Zone) and its suture zone with the Ossa–Morena Zone (the Central Unit) both build up most of the southwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula basement. This high resolution (60–90 fold) profile images about 70 km depth (20 s TWTT) of the continental lithosphere. A new data processing flow provides better structural constraints on the shallow and deep structures resulting in an image that reveals indentation features which strongly suggest horizontal tectonics. The ALCUDIA seismic image shows an upper crust c. 13 km thick decoupled from the comparatively reflective lower crust. The shallow reflectivity of the upper crust can be correlated with surface geological features mapped in the field whereas the deep reflectivity represents inferred imbricate thrust systems and listric extensional faults. The reflectivity of the mid-lower crust is continuous, high amplitude, and horizontal to arcuate though evidences of deformation are present as ductile boudinage structures, thrusting and an upper mantle wedge, suggesting a transpressional flower structure. The image reveals a laminated c. 1.5 km thick, subhorizontal to flat Moho indicating an average crustal thickness of 31–33 km. The Moho shows laterally variable signature, being highly reflective beneath the Central Iberian Zone, but discontinuous and diffuse below the Ossa–Morena Zone. The gravity response suggests relatively high density bodies in the mid-lower crust of the southern half of the transect. The seismic results suggest two major horizontal limits, a horizontal discontinuity at c. 13–15 km (corresponding to the brittle–ductile transition) and the Moho boundary both suggested to act as decoupling surfaces.

Regional structure of the southern segment of Central Iberian Zone (Spanish Variscan Belt) interpreted from potential field images and 2.5 D modelling of Alcudia gravity transect

This study presents a structural interpretation of potential field data at the southern segment of the Spanish Central Iberian Zone, where little is known about its geometry and physical properties in depth. We used ground gravity and aeromagnetic data from the Spanish Geological Survey (IGME) databases, together with a gravity survey recently acquired along the Alcudia deep seismic reflection profile, and also petrophysical data from rock samples, in part specifically acquired for this work. The aim is to characterize with potential fields the depth structure and physical properties of a complex area, focusing on features of the upper crust where the potential fields can provide a useful insight, as these features appear to be transparent in the images of seismic surveys carried up to date. After building a 2.5 D model of the magnetic susceptibility and density distribution for the whole crust with the constraints of the Alcudia seismic transect, relationships between lower and upper crustal structures can be better established, and surface geophysical maps allow estimating the lateral extensions of the main structures characterized by the potential field modelling. Interpreted gravity and magnetic Alcudia features consist of: 1) long-wavelength anomalies due to changes in crustal thickness and structure, identified along the Alcudia seismic reflection profile; some crustal boundaries and the seismic Moho have been slightly modified in the potential field model to fit the observed data; and, 2) short wavelength anomalies related to upper crustal features as large NW–SE faults and folds, and plutonic alignments. Northern and southern Alcudia segments show relevant lower-middle crust shortening structures underneath extensive Variscan plutons (Mora, Pedroches) and folded basins (Pedroches). Potential field imaging and modelling of these structures have provided a better understanding of the subsurface geology, particularly in non-reflective areas, unravelling the deep structure of the southern Central Iberian Zone.

Crustal structures revealed from a deep seismic reflection profile across the Solonker suture zone of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, northern China: An integrated interpretation

Abstract The Solonker suture zone is one of the most important tectonic boundaries in the southeastern part of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). An ~ 630 km-long reflection seismic profile across this suture was recently completed by the Chinese SinoProbe Project. The processed seismic data show clear crustal structures and provide new constraints on the tectonic and crustal evolution models. The Moho is delineated as a relatively flat boundary between a strongly reflective lower crust and a transparent mantle at a depth of ~ 40–45 km (~ 14.5 s two-way travel time), which is in agreement with the refraction data recorded along the same profile. In a broad view, the profile images an orogen that appears bivergent with, and approximately centered on, the Solonker suture zone. The southern portion of this profile is dominated by a crustal-scale, cratonward propagating fold-and-thrust system that formed during the late Permian and Triassic through collision and subsequent convergence in a post-collisional stage. The major thrust faults are truncated by Mesozoic granitoid plutons in the upper crust and by the Moho at the base of the crust. This geometry suggests that the Moho was formed after the thrusting event. The northern portion of the profile, although partially obliterated by post-collisional magmatic bodies, shows major south-dipping folding and thrusting. Bands of layered reflectors immediately overlying the Moho are interpreted as basaltic sills derived from the mantle. Episodic mafic underplating may have occurred in this region, giving rise to post-collisional magmatic events and renewal of the Moho. A few mantle reflectors are also visible. The overall geometry of these mantle reflectors supports the tectonic models that the southern orogen (Manchurides) experienced south-directed subduction and the northern orogen (Altaids) underwent north-directed subduction prior to collision along the Solonker suture zone.

Late Miocene shortening of the Northern Apennines back-arc

The inner Northern Apennines (western Tuscany and Tyrrhenian basin) is characterized by a relatively thin continental crust (∼20–25km), high heat flow (>100mWm−2), and the presence of relevant tectonic elision of stratigraphic sequences, a setting known as Serie Ridotta. These features are normally ascribed to an extensional deformation that affected the back-arc area above the subducting Adria plate since the Early-Middle Miocene (∼16Ma). However, various geophysical studies image the continental crust to be currently affected by W-dipping thrust faults (and associated basement uplifts) that have not been obliterated by this claimed long-lasting extensional process. These observations raise the question whether the thrusts are older or younger than the continental extension. To address this question we have reprocessed and interpreted the deep seismic reflection profile CROP03/c that crosses the onshore hinterland sector, and investigated the structural setting of some of the Late Miocene-Pliocene hinterland basins (Cinigiano-Baccinello, Siena-Radicofani, Tafone, Albegna and Radicondoli basins) that are situated at the front or in-between the basement uplifts. The analysis of field structures and commercial seismic profiles has allowed the recognition that both substratum and basins’ infill have been intensely shortened. These findings and the architecture of the basins suggest that the latter developed under a contractional regime, which would have started around 8.5Ma with the onset of the continental sedimentation. This compressive stress state followed an earlier phase of continental extension that presumably started at ∼16Ma (with the blocking of the Corsica-Sardinia rotation), and thinned both the continental crust and sedimentary cover producing most of the Serie Ridotta. The main phases of basin shortening are bracketed between 7.5 and 3.5Ma, and thus overlap with the increase in the exhumation rate of the metamorphic cores at ∼6–4Ma determined through thermochronological data. We therefore propose a correlation between the basin deformation and the activity of the nearby basement thrusts, which would have thus shortened a previously thinned continental crust. This chronology of deformation may suggest a geodynamic model in which the back-arc and hinterland sector of the Northern Apennines was recompressed during Late Miocene-Early Pliocene times. This evolution may be explained through different speculative scenarios involving a blockage of the subduction process, which may vary between end members of complete slab detachment and stalled subduction.