Deep-sea Mining Activities Research Articles

Deep Sea Mining Partnerships with Developing States: Favourable Collaborations or Opportunistic Endeavours?

Abstract In order to engage in deep sea mining activities on the international seabed (otherwise known as ‘the Area’), non-State actors must be sponsored by a State, which bears the responsibility to ensure that the sponsored entity complies with the applicable rules. Not only the State of nationality, but also the State which exercises ‘effective control’ might be required to serve as a sponsoring State, depending on the circumstances. However, it is not completely clear how ‘effective control’ should be interpreted. Forum shopping seems a realistic possibility, and the recent trend of partnerships between private deep sea mining companies and developing States can produce similar effects. These collaborations might be beneficial to both parties, but given the privileges awarded to developing States, it should be scrutinised as to whether such partnerships undermine the principle of the common heritage of mankind and the objective to realise benefits for mankind as a whole.

Recognition of ecosystem-based management principles in key documents of the seabed mining regime: implications and further recommendations

Abstract New human uses on the marine environment, such as deep-sea mining (DSM), have necessitated the adoption of more holistic approaches such as ecosystem-based management (EBM) to secure sustainable development. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the rules, regulations, and procedures adopted by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) represent the main regulatory framework to govern DSM activities. This study aimed to examine whether UNCLOS and ISA documents include references to EBM principles, and if these references vary in documents through time. Following a literature review, 26 EBM principles were collated into 8 general categories, and their adherence to 5 key documents related to the DSM regime was analysed. Results demonstrated a trend in recognizing EBM principles in documents over time, especially in the Draft Regulations for Exploitation. However, the mere recognition of EBM principles in the regulatory framework does not guarantee that the approach will be clearly understood and appropriately incorporated by contractors throughout the process. For such, further clarification on the meaning of the Ecosystem Approach in the DSM context and building the capacity of the ISA Legal and Technical Commission are among the recommendations presented by this study.

Progress on Regulations for Deep-Sea Mining Activities

Progress on Regulations for Deep-Sea Mining Activities

Deep sea mining and the United States: Unbound powerhouse or odd man out?

Beyond the boundaries of national jurisdiction, the seabed and its mineral resources are governed by a comprehensive international regime, consisting of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, the 1994 Implementation Agreement and detailed rules issued by the International Seabed Authority (ISA), and the exploitation phase is gradually approaching. However, the United States has not ratified the treaties, which gives rise to several issues. Indeed, depending on legal interpretation, this results in the US either being authorized to claim and exploit natural resources within the Area without prior permission of the ISA, or the US being barred from any deep sea mining activities beyond national jurisdiction. Furthermore, with regard to mineral exploitation on the continental shelf, the non-ratification of the treaties concerned also results in a number of legal questions. On the basis of a purposeful discussion of relevant international law and a thorough analysis of the US position towards the deep sea mining provisions of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, as adapted by the 1994 Implementation Agreement, as well as its current role within the context of deep sea mining, this article attempts to solve this legal conundrum. Does the US find itself in a privileged position, being able to disregard the international regime and to exploit mineral resources however and wherever they please, or should the US be regarded as the odd man out, excluded from deep sea mining activities until they ratify the relevant treaties?

Public participation in the context of deep sea mining: Luxury or legal obligation?

Beyond the boundaries of national jurisdiction, the ocean floor and its minerals are governed by a comprehensive international regime, which determines by whom and under what conditions these natural resources can be prospected, explored and exploited. The main principles are set out in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the 1994 Implementation Agreement, while more detailed rules are included in specific regulations of the International Seabed Authority (ISA). The ISA has issued rules for the first phases of deep sea mining activities (prospecting and exploration), but has yet to adopt exploitation regulations. A draft version is however being developed and provides a good indication of the current state of play. With regard to transparency and public participation, significant improvements can be identified, but considering the influence of NGOs and their crucial role as watchdogs, the power of third-party stakeholders can still be deemed fairly limited. This article analyzes the existing principles and available options regarding transparency, public participation and access to justice in all phases of deep sea mining activities, identifies the main weaknesses and suggests possible corrections, all the while assessing whether such provisions should be considered a luxury or rather the implementation of an enforceable legal obligation.

A Molecular Approach to Explore the Background Benthic Fauna Around a Hydrothermal Vent and Their Larvae: Implications for Future Mining of Deep-Sea SMS Deposits

Seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) deposites are commonly found at hydrothermal vents and recently gained the special interest of mining industries. These deposits contain valuable metals and methods are currently developed to mine deep sea SMS deposites. However, excavation of SMS deposits potentially pose a threat to benthic life at the mining site itself, and also in the surrounding environment with plumes of suspended sediment and fine-grained SMS debris created during deep sea mining activities being highlighted as one of the major threats to deep-sea benthic fauna. The benthic communities surrounding the vents are, however, poorly known. As they are often exposed to natural plumes studying such communities could provide valuable information on their resilience towards mining related plumes. The Rainbow hydrothermal vent site at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a site characterized by one of the largest continuous natural plumes, which is found persisting over an extensive area. Sediment and water samples were taken both upstream and downstream of the Rainbow hydrothermal vent. Approximately 25km away from the vent reference sites were samples as well. In addition to detecting the plume itself, concentrations of major and trace-metals in the sediments were used as tracers for long time sustained plume influence. At all sites we assessed benthic species composition and detected larvae. Metabarcoding methods were used to determine species composition. Benthic species composition in the sediment was shown to differ between all locations and was highly influenced by the plume’s fall out. Arthropoda were more dominant closer to the vent whereas Annelida and Nematoda were more dominant at the reference locations. Conservation and restoration of all these communities after a deep sea mining event will be difficult due to the spatial variation of these benthic communities.

Slow persistent mixing in the abyss

Knowledge about deep-ocean turbulent mixing and flow circulation above abyssal hilly plains is important to quantify processes for the modelling of resuspension and dispersal of sediments in areas where turbulence sources are expected to be relatively weak. Turbulence may disperse sediments from artificial deep-sea mining activities over large distances. To quantify turbulent mixing above the deep-ocean floor around 4000 m depth, high-resolution moored temperature sensor observations have been obtained from the near-equatorial southeast Pacific (7{\deg}S, 88{\deg}W). Models demonstrate low activity of equatorial flow dynamics, internal tides and surface near-inertial motions in the area. The present observations demonstrate a Conservative Temperature difference of about 0.012{\deg}C between 7 and 406 meter above the bottom (hereafter, mab, for short), which is a quarter of the adiabatic lapse rate. The very weakly stratified waters with buoyancy periods between about six hours and one day allow for slowly varying mixing. The calculated turbulence dissipation rate values are half to one order of magnitude larger than those from open-ocean turbulent exchange well away from bottom topography and surface boundaries. In the deep, turbulent overturns extend up to 100 m tall, in the ocean-interior, and also reach the lowest sensor. The overturns are governed by internal-wave-shear and -convection. The turbulence inertial subrange is observed to extend into the internal wave frequency band. The associated mixing is not related to bottom friction processes but to internal wave breaking and near-inertial shear. The mixing facilitates long (hours to day) and high (exceeding 100 mab) dispersal of suspended sediments.

The Development of a Payment Regime for Deep Sea Mining Activities in the Area through Stakeholder Participation

Abstract In July 2015, the Council of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) adopted seven priority deliverables for the development of the exploitation code. The first priority was the development of a zero draft of the exploitation regulations. This article focusses on the second priority deliverable, namely the development of a payment mechanism for exploitation activities, following detailed financial and economic models based on proposed business plans. Between 2015 and 2017, five workshops have been organised with 196 active participants from 34 countries. The results so far are synthesised, drawing upon the outcome of these workshops, ISA technical papers, and the scholarly literature.

Comparative Proteomics on Deep-Sea Amphipods after in Situ Copper Exposure.

The interest in deep-sea mining increased along with the environmental concerns of these activities to the deep-sea fauna. The discovery of optimal biomarkers of deep-sea mining activities in deep-sea species is a crucial step toward the supply of important ecological information for environmental impact assessment. In this study, an in situ copper exposure experiment was performed on deep-sea scavenging amphipods. Abyssorchomene distinctus individuals were selected among all the exposed amphipods for molecular characterization. Copper concentration within the gut was assessed, followed by a tandem mass tag-based coupled with two-dimensional liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) applied to identify and quantify the protein expression changes after 48 h of exposure. 2937 proteins were identified and annotated, and 1918 proteins among all identified proteins were assigned by at least two nonambiguous peptides. The screening process was performed based on the differences in protein abundance and the specific correlation between the proteins and copper in previous studies. These differentially produced proteins include Na+/K+ ATPase, cuticle, chitinase, and proteins with unknown function. Their abundances showed correlation with copper and had high sensitivity to indicate the copper level, being here proposed as biomarker candidates for deep-sea mining activities in the future. This is a key step in the development of environmental impact assessment of deep-sea mining activities integrating ecotoxicological data.

Dissimilatory bioreduction of iron(III) oxides by Shewanella loihica under marine sediment conditions

Shewanella is a genus of marine bacteria capable of dissimilatory iron reduction (DIR). In the context of deep-sea mining activities or submarine mine tailings disposal, dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria may play an important role in biogeochemical reactions concerning iron oxides placed on the sea bed. In this study, batch experiments were performed to evaluate the capacity of Shewanella loihica PV-4 to bioreduce different iron oxides (ferrihydrite, magnetite, goethite and hematite) under conditions similar to those in anaerobic sea sediments. Results showed that bioreduction of structural Fe(III) via oxidation of labile organic matter occurred in all these iron oxides. Based on the aqueous Fe (II) released, derived Fe(II)/acetate ratios and bioreduction coefficients seem to be only up to about 4% of the theoretical ones, considering the ideal stoichiometry of the reaction. A loss of aqueous Fe (II) was caused by adsorption and mineral transformation processes. Scanning electron microscope images showed that Shewanella lohica was attached to the Fe(III)-oxide surfaces during bioreduction. Our findings suggest that DIR of Fe(III) oxides from mine waste placed in marine environments could result in adverse ecological impacts such as liberation of trace metals in the environment.

Amplify-And-Forward Based Cascaded RF-UWOC System

A cascaded radio frequency-underwater wireless optical communication (RF-UWOC) system using an amplify-and-forward relay is considered. UWOC supports high speed communication for underwater surveillance, monitoring of climate change, and different deep-sea mining activities making it a s suitable substitute to underwater acoustic communication. The proposed fixed-gain AF based cascaded radio-optical system can connect underwater with land. The system comprises of Nakagami-m faded radio link and mixture Exponential-Generalized Gamma (EGG) faded UWOC link. Salinity, air bubbles, and thermal fluctuations in water causes underwater optical turbulence (UOT). Optical signals are modulated by subcarrier intensity modulation technique at the relay and heterodyne or direct detection is performed at destination. For this proposed communication system, outage and error analyses are carried out. It is observed that the performance of the considered system deteriorates more because of the underwater optical turbulence (UOT) due to thermal fluctuations and air bubbles as compared to UOT introduced by salinity.

Ecotoxicity of rare earths in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and a preliminary approach to assess environmental risk.

The increasing use of rare earth elements (REEs) in diverse technological applications has augmented the demand and exploitation of these worldwide, leading to a higher input of REEs + Yttrium (Y) in the marine environment. The present study investigated the ecotoxicity of Lanthanum (La) and Y to Mytilus galloprovincialis developing embryos and juveniles. This was achieved by quantifying the embryogenesis success after 48 h, and survival of juveniles after 96 h of exposure to different concentrations of La and Y. Results show that both La and Y are more toxic to developing embryos and larvae than to juveniles of M. galloprovincialis. Predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values were also derived for the embryo development as a preliminary approach to assess the environmental risk for these compounds to marine organisms. Results revealed that La is more toxic than Y. The high sensitivity of the early developmental stages to these compounds highlight the relevance of including these stages when evaluating the toxicity of chemicals where little information is available. Although older life stages may be more tolerant to toxicants, the population survival will be compromised if new recruits are not viable, with implications to the whole ecosystem health and functioning of the impacted area. Information on the ecotoxicity of chemicals with expanded technological use and that may be released during deep-sea mining activities is urgent in order to help estimate environmental impacts.

Report of the workshop Evaluating the nature of midwater mining plumes and their potential effects on midwater ecosystems

Report of the workshop Evaluating the nature of midwater mining plumes and their potential effects on midwater ecosystems

Depths of uncertainty for deep-sea policy and legislation

In comparison to terrestrial and coastal ecosystems, much remains unknown about the deep sea’s ecosystems and their economic value. This is of concern on at least three fronts. First, the deep sea forms the majority of the ocean’s marine systems and contributes substantially to global fish stocks (Danovaro et al., 2017; Drazen and Sutton, 2017). Second, it is essential for the functioning of global biogeochemical cycles, and underpins the sustenance of terrestrial ecosystems and human life (Armstrong et al., 2012). Third, the deep sea faces increased pressure from human activity in the form of deep-sea mining (DSM) (The World Bank, 2016). Based upon lessons drawn from a recent systematic review and meta-analysis published in Marine Policy (Folkersen et al., 2018), this letter discusses four main directions for future research into economic valuation, policymaking and legislation pertaining to the deep sea. First, the valuation perspective adopted for policy and decision-making on deep-sea resources needs to be defined clearly. Second, strategic environmental assessments (SEAs) and environmental impact assessments (EIAs) of DSM activities need to examine the potential global environmental damage from DSM, rather than examine impacts restricted to the geographical site in which mining takes place. Third, the interdependence between anthropogenic behaviour and economic value generated by the deep sea requires further investigation. Fourth, in addition to the valuation of specific ecosystem goods and services, the ecosystem functioning of the deep sea should also be valued. Improving our understanding of the value that the deep sea provides to human societies can facilitate sustainable resource-use, effective environmental management, and prevent severe and irreversible damage to the deep sea’s ecosystems.

Environmental considerations for impact and preservation reference zones for deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining

Development of guidance for environmental management of the deep-sea mining industry is important as contractors plan to move from exploration to exploitation activities. Two priorities for environmental management are monitoring and mitigating the impacts and effects of activities. International regulation of deep-sea mining activities stipulates the creation of two types of zones for local monitoring within a claim, impact reference zones (IRZ) and preservation reference zones (PRZ). The approach used for allocating and assessing these zones will affect what impacts can be measured, and hence taken into account and managed. This paper recommends key considerations for establishing these reference zones for polymetallic nodule mining. We recommend that zones should be suitably large (Recommendation 1) and have sufficient separation (R2) to allow for repeat monitoring of representative impacted and control sites. Zones should be objectively defined following best-practice and statistically robust approaches (R3). This will include the designation of multiple PRZ and IRZ (R4) for each claim. PRZs should be representative of the mined area, and thus should contain high -quality resource (R5) but PRZs in other habitats could also be valuable (R6). Sediment plumes will influence design of PRZ and may need additional IRZ to monitor their effects (R7), which may extend beyond the boundaries of a claim (R8). The impacts of other expected changes should be taken into account (R9). Sharing PRZ design, placement, and monitoring could be considered amongst adjacent claims (R10). Monitoring should be independently verified to enhance public trust and stakeholder support (R11).

Numerical calculations of environmental impacts for deep sea mining activities

With the expected dramatic increase of mineral resources consumption, deep sea mining (DSM) was proposed as a method supplying the running of world economy by cooperating with or compensating for the terrestrial mining industry. However, its industrialization process is hindered by various reasons including the technological feasibility, economic profitability, and the DSM environmental impacts. The objective of this paper is to calculate the DSM environmental impacts based on a DSM environmental impact framework, which was selected through a systematic literature review in earlier work. The numerical calculations focus on the initial DSM disturbances and plume source, species disturbance, sediment plume and tailings. More importantly, the interconnection between the sediment plume and the species disturbances is also analysed particularly in this paper. The research quantifies the environmental impacts into a systematic framework, which could be helpful to assess the comprehensive environmental performances of a DSM activity and to promote the DSM industrialization process in the future.

Development of physical modelling tools in support of risk scenarios: A new framework focused on deep-sea mining

Deep-sea mining has gained international interest to provide materials for the worldwide industry. European oceans and, particularly, the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone present a recognized number of areas with polymetallic sulphides rich in metals used in high technology developments. A large part of these resources are in the vicinity of sensitive ecosystems, where the mineral extraction can potentially damage deep-ocean life services. In this context, technological research must be intensified, towards the implementation of environmental friendly solutions that mitigate the associated impacts.To reproduce deep-sea dynamics and evaluate the effects of the mining activities, reliable numerical modelling tools should be developed. The present work highlights the usefulness of a new framework for risk and impact assessment based on oceanographic numerical models to support the adoption of good management practices for deep-sea sustainable exploitation. This tool integrates the oceanic circulation model ROMS-Agrif with the semi-Lagrangian model ICHTHYOP, allowing the representation of deep-sea dynamics and particles trajectories considering the sediments physical properties. Numerical simulations for the North Mid-Atlantic Ridge region, revealed the ability of ROMS-Agrif to simulate real deep-sea dynamics through validation with in situ data. Results showed a strong diversity in the particle residence time, with a dependency on their density and size but also on local ocean conditions and bottom topography. The highest distances are obtained for the smaller and less dense particles, although they tend to be confined by bathymetric constrains and deposited in deepest regions.This work highlights the potential of this modelling tool to forecast laden plume trajectories, allowing the definition of risk assessment scenarios for deep-sea mining activities and the implementation of sustainable exploitation plans. Furthermore, the coupling of this numerical solution with models of biota inhabiting deep-sea vent fields into ecosystem models is discussed and outlined as cost-effective tools for the management of these remote ecosystems.

Deep sea mining's future effects on Fiji's tourism industry: A contingent behaviour study

Pristine coral reefs possess a tremendous potential for contributing to tourism and economic development. This is especially important for Fiji given their tourism economy's reliance on diving and coastal activities. Understanding divers’ perceptions of coral reefs and environmental issues is, therefore, paramount to sustaining the tourism industry. Despite the importance of coral reefs to the Fijian tourism sector, the Fijian Government has granted exploration licenses to mining companies to assess the viability of deep sea mining (DSM) activities in Fiji's seas. There is concern that DSM may negatively impact reef-related tourism due to tourists’ perception that DSM activities degrades Fiji's coral reefs. This study conducts a contingent behaviour survey to explore how tourists’ expectations of DSM will affect their future travel decisions and subsequently influence overall tourism demand in Fiji. Our findings show that divers and snorkelers demonstrate a high willingness to return to Fiji in the future, based on their previous travel experience, but that they would significantly reduce their future visits if DSM was to take place in Fiji. These results contribute to our understanding of the potential trade-offs between DSM and reef-related tourism and give some preliminary estimates of the potential economic consequences of the Fijian Government allowing DSM within their territorial waters.

Long-Term Stability of Back-Arc Basin Hydrothermal Vents

Since the discovery of hydrothermal vents 40-years ago, long-term time-series have focused on mid-ocean ridge systems. Based on these studies, hydrothermal vents are widely considered to be dynamic, ephemeral habitats. Under this premise, national and international regulatory bodies are currently planning for the commercial mining of polymetallic sulfide deposits from hydrothermal vents. However, here we provide evidence of longevity and habitat stability that does not align with historic generalizations. Over a 10-year time-series focused on the back-arc basin systems off the west coast of the Kingdom of Tonga (South Pacific), we find the hydrothermal vents are remarkably stable habitats. Using high-resolution photo mosaics and spatially explicit in situ measurements to document natural changes of five hydrothermal vent edifices, we discovered striking stability in the vent structures themselves, as well as in the composition and coverage of the vent-associated species, with some evidence of microdistribution permanence. These findings challenge the way we think about hydrothermal vent ecosystems and their vulnerability and resilience to deep-sea mining activities.

Physiological impacts of acute Cu exposure on deep-sea vent mussel Bathymodiolus azoricus under a deep-sea mining activity scenario

Over the past years, several studies have been dedicated to understanding the physiological ability of the vent mussel Bathymodiolus azoricus to overcome the high metal concentrations present in their surrounding hydrothermal environment. Potential deep-sea mining activities at Azores Triple junction hydrothermal vent deposits would inevitably lead to the emergence of new fluid sources close to mussel beds, with consequent emission of high metal concentrations and potential resolubilization of Cu from minerals formed during the active phase of the vent field. Copper is an essential metal playing a key role in the activation of metalloenzymes and metalloproteins responsible for important cellular metabolic processes and tissue homeostasis. However, excessive intracellular amounts of reactive Cu ions may cause irreversible damages triggering possible cell apoptosis. In the present study, B. azoricus was exposed to increasing concentrations of Cu for 96h in conditions of temperature and hydrostatic pressure similar to those experienced at the Lucky Strike hydrothermal vent field. Specimens were kept in 1L flasks, exposed to four Cu concentrations: 0μg/L (control), 300, 800 and 1600μg/L and pressurized to 1750bar. We addressed the question of how increased Cu concentration would affect the function of antioxidant defense proteins and expression of antioxidant and immune-related genes in B. azoricus. Both antioxidant enzymatic activities and gene expression were examined in gills, mantle and digestive gland tissues of exposed vent mussels. Our study reveals that stressful short-term Cu exposure has a strong effect on molecular metabolism of the hydrothermal vent mussel, especially in gill tissue. Initially, both the stress caused by unpressurization or by Cu exposure was associated with high antioxidant enzyme activities and tissue-specific transcriptional up-regulation. However, mussels exposed to increased Cu concentrations showed both antioxidant and immune-related gene suppression. Under a mining activity scenario, the release of an excess of dissolved Cu to the vent environment may cause serious changes in cellular defense mechanisms of B. azoricus. This outcome, while adding to our knowledge of Cu toxicity, highlights the potentially deleterious impacts of mining activities on the physiology of deep-sea organisms.