Deep Minimum Research Articles

Influence of solar variability on the infrared radiative cooling of the thermosphere from 2002 to 2014.

Infrared radiative cooling of the thermosphere by carbon dioxide (CO2, 15 µm) and by nitric oxide (NO, 5.3 µm) has been observed for 12 years by the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on the Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics satellite. For the first time we present a record of the two most important thermospheric infrared cooling agents over a complete solar cycle. SABER has documented dramatic variability in the radiative cooling on time scales ranging from days to the 11 year solar cycle. Deep minima in global mean vertical profiles of radiative cooling are observed in 2008–2009. Current solar maximum conditions, evidenced in the rates of radiative cooling, are substantially weaker than prior maximum conditions in 2002–2003. The observed changes in thermospheric cooling correlate well with changes in solar ultraviolet irradiance and geomagnetic activity during the prior maximum conditions. NO and CO2 combine to emit 7 × 1018 more Joules annually at solar maximum than at solar minimum.Key PointsFirst record of thermospheric IR cooling rates over a complete solar cycleIR cooling in current solar maximum conditions much weaker than prior maximumVariability in thermospheric IR cooling observed on scale of days to 11 years

Transfer excitation reactions in fast proton-helium collisions

Continuing previous work, we have measured the projectile scattering-angle dependency for transfer excitation of fast protons (300-1200 keV/u) colliding with helium (p+He $\rightarrow$ H + He$^{+ *}$). Our high-resolution fully differential data are accompanied by calculations, performed in the plane wave first Born approximation and the eikonal wave Born approximation. Experimentally we find a deep minimum in the differential cross section around 0.5 $mrad$. The comparison with our calculations shows that describing the scattering angle dependence of transfer exitation in fast collisions requires to go beyond the first Born approximation and in addition to use initial state wave function, which contains some degree of angular correlations.

Broad bandwidth acoustic backscattering from sandeel—measurements and finite element simulations

Abstract Acoustic backscattering measurements were made of individual sandeel (Ammodytes marinus L.) at frequencies from 100 to 280 kHz in a laboratory tank. Measurements were made versus incidence angle, −30° to 30° relative to both dorsal and lateral aspect directions, for dead whole sandeel and for excised backbones. Backscatter spectra from whole fish have deep minima at frequencies that vary with fish length and shift to lower frequencies at higher incidence angles. The backscatter spectra from dorsal and lateral aspects differ both in amplitude and in positions of the minima. The backscatter from the excised backbone increases almost linearly with frequency and, below about 150 kHz, contributes only a minor amount to the total sandeel backscatter. A finite element model of sandeel backscatter, developed and compared with the measurements, indicates that shear waves in the backbone contribute little to the overall backscatter from sandeel.

Trace metals (Co, Ni, Cu, Cd, and Pb) in the southern East/Japan Sea

Total dissolvable metals (Co, Ni, Cu, Cd, and Pb) in both surface waters and the water columns were acquired in the southern East/Japan Sea during a cruise around the Ulleung Basin in June 2001 to understand the spatial distributions of the metals. Concentrations in offshore surface waters were found to be Co 60 ± 12 pM, Ni 2.16 ± 0.25 nM, Cu 1.85 ± 0.55 nM, Cd 0.134 ± 0.018 nM, and Pb 155 ± 40 pM. Spatial distributions in surface waters showed that metal levels were generally enhanced at coastal sites in both Korea and Japan, where the metal distributions indicated complex patterns due to inputs, biogeochemical processes, and physical factors including upwelling. The Co distributions in the water columns seemed to be influenced predominantly by surface and bottom inputs, scavenged rather than regenerated at depth. For Cd, there was generally good agreement between the Cd and PO4 depth distributions, in agreement with the literature. The Cd/PO4 ratio from the water columns was found to be 0.133–0.203, lower than that in other marginal seas (e.g. the East/South China Seas and the Philippine Sea) of the western Pacific Ocean; this might be a result of the fast ventilation rate in this sea. The vertical Pb profile showed typical scavenged-type behavior with a surface maximum and deep minimum. From a comparison of inputs from the atmosphere and the Tsushima Warm Current, atmospheric deposition is substantial enough that it cannot be ignored, and its role in metal cycling is more significant in the offshore zone.

An in-depth analysis of the RZ Piscium atmosphere

The star RZ Psc is one of the most unusual members of the UX Ori star family. It demonstrates all properties that are typical of these stars (the light variability, high linear polarization in deep minima, the blueing effect), but until recently there has been no obvious evidence of its youth. Recently, we have shown that RZ Psc is in the transitional evolutionary stage between stars with the primordial and debris disks. In this paper we present the results of the quantitative analysis of the star’s spectrum. Using the high-resolution (R = 46 000) spectrum of RZ Psc obtained with Nordic Optical Telescope, we determined T eff = 5350 ± 150 K, log g = 4.2 ± 0.2, [M/H] = −0.3 ± 0.05. These parameters agree well with the same ones as for the stars recently passed the T Tauri star evolutionary stage. This supports our previous suggestion about the evolutionary status of RZ Psc as the post-T Tauri and post-UX Ori star.

Coronal electron temperature in the protracted solar minimum, the cycle 24 mini maximum, and over centuries

Recent in situ observations of the solar wind show that charge states (e.g., the O7+/O6+and C6+/C5+abundance ratios) evolved through the extended, deep solar minimum between solar cycles 23 and 24 (i.e., from 2006 to 2009) reflecting cooler electron temperatures in the corona. We extend previous analyses to study the evolution of the coronal electron temperature through the protracted solar minimum and observe not only the reduction in coronal temperature in the cycles 23–24 solar minimum but also a small increase in coronal temperature associated with increasing activity during the “mini maximum” in cycle 24. We use a new model of the interplanetary magnetic flux since 1749 to estimate coronal electron temperatures over more than two centuries. The reduction in coronal electron temperature in the cycles 23–24 protracted solar minimum is similar to reductions observed at the beginning of the Dalton Minimum (∼1805–1840). If these trends continue to reflect the evolution of the Dalton Minimum, we will observe further reductions in coronal temperature in the cycles 24–25 solar minimum. Preliminary indications in 2013 do suggest a further post cycle 23 decline in solar activity. Thus, we extend our understanding of coronal electron temperature using the solar wind scaling law and compare recent reductions in coronal electron temperature in the protracted solar minimum to conditions that prevailed in the Dalton Minimum.

Horizontal flow fields observed in Hinode G-band images

The extensive database of high-resolution G-band images observed with the Hinode/SOT is a unique resource to derive statistical properties of pores using advanced digital image processing techniques. The study is based on two data sets: (1) Photometric and morphological properties inferred from single G-band images cover almost seven years from 2006 October 25 to 2013 August 31. (2) Horizontal flow fields have been derived from 356 one-hour sequences of G-band images using LCT for a shorter period of time from 2006 November 3 to 2008 January 6 comprising 13 active regions. A total of 7643/2863 (single/time-averaged) pores builds the foundation of the statistical analysis. Pores are preferentially observed at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere during the deep minimum of solar cycle No. 23. This imbalance reverses during the rise of cycle No. 24, when the pores migrate from high to low latitudes. Pores are rarely encountered in quiet-Sun G-band images, and only about 10% of pores exists in isolation. In general, pores do not exhibit a circular shape. Typical aspect ratios of the semi-major and -minor axes are 3:2 when ellipses are fitted to pores. Smaller pores (more than two-thirds are smaller than 5~Mm^2) tend to be more circular, and their boundaries are less corrugated. Both area and perimeter length of pores obey log-normal frequency distributions. The frequency distribution of the intensity can be reproduced by two Gaussians representing dark and bright components. Bright features resembling umbral dots and even light-bridges cover about 20% of the pore's area. Averaged radial profiles show a peak of the intensity at normalized radius R_N = r /R_pore = 2.1, followed by maxima of the divergence at R_N= 2.3 and the radial component of the horizontal velocity at R_N= 4.6. The divergence is negative within pores.

Description of the shape evolution in the yrast states of 186Pt

186Pt was tested in the framework of IBM-1 and the X(3) model. The results show that 186Pt is located close to the shape phase transition point, but the B(E2) values little agree with the X(3) model. The shape evolution in the yrast states of 186Pt is also discussed in detail. TRS calculation exhibits a flat bottomed potential at low spin states, but a relatively deep minimum at high spin states. It suggests that a shape evolution from vibrational mode to rotational mode happens in 186Pt. The result is in agreement with the E-GOS calculation.

On the pre-midnight ascent of F-layer in the June solstice during the deep solar minimum in 2008 over the Indian sector

Investigations on the variations of the virtual height (h'F) of the base of the F-layer over Thumba (8.5°N, 77°E, dip lat 0.5°N) in 2002 (high solar activity) and 2008 (very low solar activity) under quiet geomagnetic conditions show characteristic pre-midnight rise of h'F in the June solstice of 2008. Comparison of the h'F variations in 2008 over Thumba and Fortaleza (3.9°S, 38.4°W, dip lat 1.8°S), Brazil, reveals that the pre-midnight rise of h'F is significantly more over Thumba during the June solstice. Drift measurements on-board the Communication/Navigation Outage Forecasting System (C/NOFS) satellite elicit that the midnight upward drift over the Indian sector during the northern summer months of 2009 is the largest, a feature that significantly weakens in 2010. C/NOFS measurements also confirm the electro-dynamical nature of the pre-midnight h'F rise over the Indian sector in the June solstice during the low solar activity. As the equatorial F-region vertical drifts during nighttime are controlled by E-region dynamo driven by tidal wind system, systematic wind measurements at upper mesospheric heights by an MF radar (1.98MHz) from Tirunelveli (8.7°N, 77.8°E, dip lat 0.5°S), India, during 2000–2011 are used to derive the tidal components. This reveals that the phases of both the meridional and zonal components of the diurnal tide regress while the phase of the meridional component of the semidiurnal tide significantly advances with decreasing solar activity with concomitant increases in amplitudes during the summer months. These observations suggest the possible semidiurnal tidal influence on the pre-midnight h'F rise over the Indian sector in the June solstice during low solar activity.

Characterizing Conformational Ensemble and Free Energy Landscape of ABC Exporters using a Novel System-Specific Sampling Approach

During their transport cycle, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) exporters undergo large-scale conformational changes between inward-facing (IF) and outward-facing (OF) states. Using a novel approach based on designing system-specific reaction coordinates and employing nonequilibrium simulations, we have recently characterized the IF-OF conformational transition pathway of MsbA, a bacterial ABC exporter whose structure has been solved in multiple functional states including an OF conformation and two IF conformations (termed IF-closed and IF-open based on the extent to which the cytoplasmic side is open). Due to low resolution of MsbA crystal structures in IF conformation, only Cα atoms have been reported; however our unique system-specific sampling strategy results in a stable all-atom model of MsbA in the IF conformation in the presence of explicit membrane and water. In order to more accurately characterize the conformational ensemble of nucleotide-free apo MsbA, we also employ a free energy calculation technique based on a combination of umbrella sampling and replica exchange methods, using a reaction coordinate defined based on the orientation of transmembrane helices. The results indicate that the IF-closed conformation is associated with a relatively deep minimum and the IF-open-like conformations are also thermally accessible. However, the deepest free energy basin is associated with an IF conformation, more open than IF-closed and less open than IF-open, resembling the crystal structures of P-glycoprotein (a MsbA homolog) which are obtained at higher resolutions. The overall picture emerging from the reconstructed free energies is that MsbA is fairly flexible in its resting state in the absence of nucleotides and substrates. The approach proposed here provides a framework to study large-scale conformational changes of membrane transporters whose computational investigation at an atomic resolution may not be currently feasible using conventional methods.

The chromosphere above sunspots at millimeter wavelengths

Aims: The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that millimeter wave data can be used to distinguish between various atmospheric models of sunspots, whose temperature structure in the upper photosphere and chromosphere has been the source of some controversy. Methods: We use observations of the temperature contrast (relative to the quiet Sun) above a sunspot umbra at 3.5 mm obtained with the Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland Array (BIMA), complemented by submm observations from Lindsey & Kopp (1995) and 2 cm observations with the Very Large Array. These are compared with the umbral contrast calculated from various atmospheric models of sunspots. Results: Current mm and submm observational data suggest that the brightness observed at these wavelengths is low compared to the most widely used sunspot models. These data impose strong constraints on the temperature and density stratifications of the sunspot umbral atmosphere, in particular on the location and depth of the temperature minimum and the location of the transition region. Conclusions: A successful model that is in agreement with millimeter umbral brightness should have an extended and deep temperature minimum (below 3000 K). Better spatial resolution as well as better wavelength coverage are needed for a more complete determination of the chromospheric temperature stratification above sunspot umbrae.

Interactions of Fullerene (C60) and its Hydroxyl Derivatives with Lipid Bilayer: A Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics Simulation

Coarse-grained molecular dynamic simulations were employed to study the interactions of fullerene (C60) and its hydroxyl derivatives (C60(OH)n, n = 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, and 16) with a lipid bilayer composed of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine molecules. It was found that the C60 moves towards the center of the bilayer and laid between central and peripheral regions of the bilayer. The potential mean force was calculated to estimate free energy profile when pulling the fullerene from its initial position to the center of the bilayer using an umbrella sampling method. Results showed that the hydrophobic region of the membrane acts as a barrier to transport a nonpolar C60 molecule through the bilayer. This makes a deep minimum in the free energy profile between the center and head regions of membrane. Various numbers of polar functional groups (–OH) were then used to make derivatives of fullerene and change the hydrophilic of the molecule. It was found that optimal number of hydroxyl groups to facilitate the transportation of C60(OH)n through the bilayer is 4.

The sunspot cycle length – modulated by planets?

The Schwabe frequency band of the sunspot record since 1700 has an average period of 11.06 yr and contains four major cycles, with periods of 9.97, 10.66, 11.01 and 11.83 yr. Analysis of the O-C residuals of the timing of solar cycle minima reveals that the solar cycle length is modulated by a secular period of about 190 yr and the Gleissberg period of about 86 yr. Based on a simple harmonic model with these periods, we predict that the solar cycle length will in average be longer during the 21st century. Cycle 24 may be about 12 yr long, while cycles 25 and 26 are estimated to be about 9 and 11 yr long. The following cycle is estimated to be 14 yr long. In all periods during the last 1000 yr, when the solar cycle length has increased due to the 190 yr cycle, a deep minimum of solar activity has occurred. This is expected to re-occur in the first part of this century. The coherent modulation of the solar cycle length over a period of 400 yr is a strong argument for an external tidal forcing by the planets Venus, Earth, Jupiter and Saturn, as expressed in a spin-orbit coupling model.

Behaviour of ionospheric magnitudes of F2 region over Tucumán during a deep solar minimum and comparison with the IRI 2012 model predictions

In this paper we analyze the behaviour of the critical frequency of the F2 region of the ionosphere (foF2) and the height of the maximum density of free electrons in F2 region (hmF2) over Tucumán (26.9°S, 294.6°E), during the deep solar minimum occurred in 2008–2009. Data used were compared with those obtained at solar minimum observed in 1975–1976In addition, we check the validity of the International Reference Ionosphere model (IRI), in the version 2012, to predict the maximum free electron density in the ionosphere (NmF2) above the mentioned station, for very low solar activity.The results show that: (a) Ionization was lowest for recent solar minimum. (b) The semmianual anomaly which are present in the behaviour of foF2 at times of increased solar activity, was not clearly observed during the period 2008–2009. This phenomenon could be related with the very low solar activity for that period, confirming the relationship of the amplitude of this anomaly with the solar activity reported by other authors. (c) In most cases, the values of hmF2 recorded in the deep solar minimum are lower than those observed in the period 1975–1976, suggesting a decrease in the height of the ionosphere in the course of time, which could be related to the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere and the anomalously low solar extreme-ultraviolet irradiance. (d) IRI predictions show significant deviations from the experimental values, indicating the need for improvements in the model.

Deep solar activity minima, sharp climate changes, and their impact on ancient civilizations

It is shown that, over the past ∼10000 years (the Holocene), deep Maunder type solar minima have been accompanied by sharp climate changes. These minima occurred every 2300–2400 years. It has been established experimentally that, at ca 4.0 ka BP, there occurred a global change in the structure of atmospheric circulation, which coincided in time with the discharge of glacial masses from Greenland to North Atlantic and a solar activity minimum. The climate changes that took place at ca 4.0 ka BP and the deep solar activity minimum that occurred at ca 2.5 ka BP affected the development of human society, leading to the degradation and destruction of a number of ancient civilizations.

Effect of the composition and annealing on the electron transport in Zn Cd1−Se nanocrystalline films

Abstract Nanocrystalline layers of Zn x Cd 1 − x Se with five different compositions in the range x = 0.39–0.8 were prepared by thermal vacuum evaporation and alloying of ZnSe and CdSe sublayers with various nominal thicknesses (0.12, 0.25 or 0.37 nm). Temperature dark and photocurrent measurements were carried out in the range 77–423 K to explore the effect of annealing at 473 K and 673 K on the dark and photoconductivity of the films. A gradual decrease of the conductivity and photoconductivity of the films annealed at 473 K has been observed with increasing Zn content while the dark current activation energy has increased. However for the films annealed at 673 K the compositional variation of both dark and photoconductivity has displayed a deep minimum for the x = 0.59 films. The obtained results have been discussed considering the effect of the sublayer nominal thickness and the intergrain barriers on the electron transport in the films and keeping in mind that the film surface of the annealed films is quite smooth. It has been inferred that the annealing increases the density of Se vacancies and reduces the compositional disorder and the interface defect density.

Simultaneous traveling convection vortex events and Pc1 wave bursts at cusp latitudes observed in Arctic Canada and Svalbard

AbstractTraveling convection vortices (TCVs), which appear in ground magnetometer records at near‐cusp latitudes as solitary ~5 mHz pulses, are a signature of dynamical processes in the ion foreshock upstream of the Earth's bow shock that can stimulate transient compressions of the dayside magnetosphere. These compressions can also increase the growth rate of electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) waves, which appear in ground records at these same latitudes as bursts of Pc1 pulsations. In this study we have identified TCVs and simultaneous Pc1 burst events in two regions, Eastern Arctic Canada and Svalbard, using a combination of fluxgate magnetometers and search coil magnetometers in each region. By looking for the presence of TCVs and Pc1 bursts in two different sequences, we have found that the distribution of Pc1 bursts was more tightly clustered near local noon than that of TCV events, that neither TCVs nor Pc1 bursts were always associated with the other, and even when they occurred simultaneously their amplitudes showed little correlation. Magnetometer data from GOES‐12 were also used to characterize the strength of the magnetic compressions at geosynchronous orbit near the magnetic equator. Compressions > 2 nT at GOES‐12 occurred during 57% of the Canadian TCV events, but during ~85% of the simultaneous TCV/Pc1 burst events. There was again little evident correlation between TCV and GOES‐12 compression amplitudes. We have also documented unusually low EMIC wave activity during this deep solar minimum interval, and we attribute the low occurrence percentage of combined events in this study to this minimum.

Octupolar approximation for the excluded volume of axially symmetric convex bodies

We propose a simply computable formula for the excluded volume of convex, axially symmetric bodies, based on the classical Brunn-Minkoski theory for convex bodies, which is briefly outlined in an Appendix written in a modern mathematical language. This formula is applied to cones and spherocones, which are regularized cones; a shape-reconstruction algorithm is able to generate the region in space inaccessible to them and to compute their excluded volume, which is found to be in good agreement with our approximate analytical formula. Finally, for spherocones with an appropriately tuned amplitude, we predict the occurrence of a relative deep minimum of the excluded volume in a configuration lying between the parallel alignment (where the excluded volume is maximum) and the antiparallel alignment (where the excluded volume is minimum).

The Association of Solar Flares with Coronal Mass Ejections During the Extended Solar Minimum

We study the association of solar flares with coronal mass ejections (CMEs) during the deep, extended solar minimum of 2007-2009, using extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) and white-light (coronagraph) images from the {\it Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory} (STEREO). Although all of the fast (v $>$ 900 km s$^{-1}$) {\it and} wide ($\theta >$ 100$\arcdeg$) CMEs are associated with a flare that is at least identified in GOES soft X-ray light curves, a majority of flares with relatively high X-ray intensity for the deep solar minimum (e.g. $\gtrsim$1 \times 10^{-6}$ W m$^{-2}$ or C1) are not associated with CMEs. Intense flares tend to occur in active regions with strong and complex photospheric magnetic field, but the active regions that produce CME-associated flares tend to be small, including those that have no sunspots and therefore no NOAA active-region numbers. Other factors on scales comparable to and larger than active regions seem to exist that contribute to the association of flares with CMEs. We find the possible low coronal signatures of CMEs, namely eruptions, dimmings, EUV waves, and Type III bursts, in 91%, 74%, 57%, and 74%, respectively, of the 35 flares that we associate with CMEs. None of these observables can fully replace direct observations of CMEs by coronagraphs.

Record neutron monitor counting rates from galactic cosmic rays

AbstractNeutron monitors have recorded the flux of high‐energy Galactic cosmic rays for more than half a century. During the recent, prolonged, deep minimum in solar activity, many sources indicate that modulated Galactic cosmic rays have attained new Space Age highs. However, reported neutron monitor rates are ambiguous; some record new highs while others do not. This work examines the record of 15 long‐running neutron monitors to evaluate cosmic ray fluxes during the recent extraordinary solar minimum in a long‐term context. We show that ground‐level neutron rates did reach a historic high during the recent solar minimum, and we present a new analysis of the cosmic ray energy spectrum in the year 2009 versus year 1987. To do this, we define a reference as the average of eight high‐latitude neutron monitors, four in the Northern Hemisphere (Apatity, Inuvik, Oulu, Thule) and four in the Southern Hemisphere (Kerguelen, McMurdo, Sanae, Terre Adelie). Most stations display changes in sensitivity, which we characterize by a simple linear trend. After correcting for the change in sensitivity, a consistent picture emerges. With our correction, all stations considered display new highs at the recent solar minimum, approximately 3% above the previous record high. These increases are shown to be consistent with spacecraft observations.