Decreased Meat Consumption Research Articles

Green Meal? The role of situational contexts for real-time vegetarian Meal choices

This study addresses the urgent need to decrease meat consumption by untangling in which situations urban citizens opt for vegetarian meals over meals that include meat. To do so, this study applies ecological momentary assessment (EMA) over three subsequent weeks with a sample of 82 participants and 1449 daily meal choices. Results indicate a significant association between individuals’ vegetarian meal choices and factors such as meal type, meal location, and presence of others – for instance, vegetarian meals are more likely to be eaten at breakfast, when people are at home, or when they are alone. Furthermore, individuals are much more likely to eat vegetarian when others in their company also eat a vegetarian meal. Beyond these physical and social contexts, the study finds that the likelihood of eating vegetarian decreases when people are happy, and increases when people are more relaxed in the meal situation. Based on these findings, the study offers practical recommendations for interventions targeting situations highly associated with meat consumption and calls for future research on causal evidence.

The Importance of Lentils: An Overview

The legume family includes approximately 19,300 species across three large subfamilies, of which Papilionoideae stands out with 13,800 species. Lentils were one of the first crops to be domesticated by humans, approximately 11,000 BP. They are diploid legumes that belong to the Papilionoidea subfamily and are of agricultural importance because of their resistance to drought and the fact that they grow in soil with a pH range of 5.5–9; therefore, they are cultivated in various types of soil, and so they have an important role in sustainable food and feed systems in many countries. In addition to their agricultural importance, lentils are a rich source of protein, carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. They are key to human nutrition since they are an alternative to animal proteins, decreasing meat consumption. Another characteristic of legumes, including lentils, is their ability to form nodules, which gives them a growth advantage in nitrogen-deficient soils because they enable the plant to fix atmospheric nitrogen, thus contributing nitrogen to the soil and facilitating the nutrition of other plants during intercropping. Lentils have also been applied for protection against various human diseases, as well as for phytoremediation, and they also have been applied as environmental bioindicators to identify cytotoxicity. This review addresses the importance of lentils in agriculture and human health.

Gendered Meat? Cognitive Dissonance and Individual Differences in Meat Eaters

ABSTRACT Complex cognitions are involved in professing to love animals whilst eating them – the “meat paradox.” Meat-related cognitive dissonance varies depending upon the self-identified gender of the individual, with women more likely to report more negative affect and more likely to express a desire to reduce meat consumption than men. In this study, we investigated possible reasons for why gender effects are observed. We hypothesized that there may be an effect across different species – do we feel bad about eating lambs but not chickens? Is it the case that dissonance is most strongly elicited when the meat-animal connection involves animals thought to have less intelligence? What role does identification with particular gender roles play in the justifications that drive the meat paradox? Does the idea that qualities of food are related to the way an animal is killed play a role – this being the concept of magical thinking, which has been demonstrated to be more common in women? In two experiments involving 466 participants, we aimed to better understand the meat paradox in the context of cognitive dissonance, gender, magical thinking, empathy, and gender-role orientation. We found that exposure to information about the intelligence of animals (lamb and chicken) and the slaughter process induced negative affect in comparison with the control condition (apples). We replicated the finding that women who identify with more traditional gender roles experience greater meat-related cognitive dissonance. Further, there was a significant correlation between increased negative affect and higher scores on magical thinking. Finally, experiencing meat-related cognitive dissonance led to an increase in rates of intention to decrease meat consumption. Whilst we replicated several previous findings reported in the literature, we did not show unequivocal relationships between gender, gender roles, and magical thinking and the meat paradox. The ways in which people manage meat-related cognitive dissonance remains an area for further interrogation to better understand these contradictions of thinking and behavior. Understanding the meat paradox has implications for animal welfare and human and planetary health.

From Affluence to Processed Food: Meat Consumption in Spain from 1950 to the present

Using Spain as a case study, we analyze the evolution of meat consumption from the 1950s to the present. A meat consumption database was constructed using four sources: the FAO, Ministry Balance Sheets, Household Budget Surveys and the Food Consumption Panel. The study has two main contributions. First, we question the idea that meat consumption in Spain has been increasing steadily since the 1950s, as some economic historians have reported. Second, we identify two different food consumption models. The first is characterized by an increase in standardized meat consumption and the second features decreased meat consumption alongside a rise in the consumption of processed and prepared meat.

Dispersion of low concentration of particulate or fibrillated protein fillers into plant protein melts and their impact on the elasticity and tenderness gap of plant-based foods

The development of plant-based foods has emerged as a promising strategy to decrease meat consumption. Using predominantly globular plant proteins challenges the crafting of cohesive, viscoelastic, and anisotropic structures similar to animal meat. In this study, we investigated the effect of incorporating low concentrations (<1%, w/w) of the polar gelatin or the non-polar zein on the mechanical properties of high moisture meat analogue prototypes. These proteins were studied in both particulate (bulk) and nano-fibrillated forms. Building on our previous work, soy protein (68% protein) and mung bean protein (81% protein) concentrates were chosen based on their distinct protein purity and high propensity to rearrange into new ordered secondary structural elements upon extrusion. Gelatin and zein were incorporated into the extrusion process via aqueous dispersion in particulate form or previously converted into nanofibers (210–440 nm diameter) using food-grade electrospinning. The incorporation of both fillers (either particulate or fibrillate) decreased the elasticity and Warner-Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF, known to be inversely correlated to meat tenderness) of mung bean extrudates. However, the addition of 0.1% fibrillated gelatin or particulate/fibrillated zein increased up to 44% or 22% the WBSF of soy extrudates, respectively. In all cases, the incorporation of fillers caused dramatic concentration-dependent changes in the secondary structures (FTIR) of soy proteins and the water mobility (LF-NMR) of extrudates. This work highlights the potential of multifunctional fillers and the combination of top-down (extrusion) and bottom-up (fibrillation) approaches to reduce the tenderness gap between animal meat and structured foods made with less-refined plant-protein fractions.

No meat, lab meat, or half meat? Dutch and Finnish consumers’ attitudes toward meat substitutes, cultured meat, and hybrid meat products

As a result of the ongoing climate crisis, there is a growing need to decrease meat consumption worldwide. This study sought to investigate Dutch and Finnish consumers’ attitudes toward plant-based meat substitutes, cultured meat, and hybrid meat products. It also aimed to determine how those attitudes relate to the consumers’ meat attachment, food neophobia, and food sustainability knowledge. An online survey was conducted among omnivore and flexitarian participants from the Netherlands (n = 126, 72% female, 62% flexitarian) and Finland (n = 250, 71% female, 52% flexitarian). The results showed that the omnivore participants tended to be more meat attached, score higher in terms of food neophobia, and exhibit less knowledge of food sustainability when compared with the participants with flexitarian diets. Furthermore, the results revealed that meat substitutes and hybrid meat products scored significantly higher regarding the participants’ overall attitude score than cultured meat, although the participants’ willingness to buy both hybrid meat products and cultured meat was significantly lower than their willingness to buy meat substitutes. The willingness to buy the three types of alternatives to meat was influenced by the country, diet, age, gender, familiarity, food sustainability knowledge, food neophobia, and meat attachment. Based on these results, it can be concluded that flexitarians represent an important target population for the promotion of meat alternatives and that hybrid meat products could be a viable option for reducing meat consumption if it is properly promoted.

The Benefits and Burdens of Meat Consumption

The Benefits and Burdens of Meat Consumption

“Meat” Me in the Middle: The Potential of a Social Norm Feedback Intervention in the Context of Meat Consumption – A Conceptual Replication

ABSTRACT Meat consumption has detrimental environmental effects. Research shows that social norms are important when it comes to meat consumption. However, social norm interventions have shown mixed effects regarding their effectiveness for decreasing meat consumption. Therefore, an experiment was conducted (n = 279) with a 2 (baseline meat consumption: above- vs. below-average) x 3 (social norm feedback: descriptive norm only, descriptive plus injunctive norm, no feedback) x 3 (time: T0 [baseline], T1 [+1 week from baseline], T2 [+2 weeks from baseline]) mixed-factorial design. Results showed that reported changes in meat consumption at T1 and T2 relative to T0 were not different after receiving social norm feedback (i.e. descriptive norm only or descriptive plus injunctive norm) compared to receiving no feedback. Irrespective of the social norm feedback condition, participants reporting above-average meat consumption at baseline reduced their consumption, whereas those reporting below-average meat consumption at baseline increased their consumption over time. A plausible explanation for these findings may be statistical regression to the mean. Further understanding is needed of how social norm interventions may be used to reduce meat consumption.

Dietary Choice and Environment Impacts: A Critical Review, with special consideration to Non-Vegetarian Diets

The amendment in human lifestyle has been dramatic over the years. Food consumption and patterns have varied exponentially. According to studies, the human population is expected to rise by 25% and reach 9.9 billion by 2050. This increase will lead to a hike in meat consumption by 60% worldwide. It is projected to reach 460 million to 570 million tons of meat. The excessive growth in meat consumption and production will lead to several environmental impacts. In this paper, we will discuss changes in lifestyle and consumption patterns, energy footprints, GHG emissions of different diets, and the environmental impacts on land, water, and climate change, and animal torture. Also, we will be comparing various diets; vegan, vegetarian, and omnivorous, and their impacts on the planet. The paper also focuses on the solutions regarding how we as an individual can contribute to the environment, and protect our animals and the climate by choosing better alternatives and substantially decreasing meat consumption.

The effectiveness of normative messages to decrease meat consumption: The superiority of dynamic normative messages framed as a loss

Consumer behaviors related to food consumption, such as meat consumption, is acknowledged to be a main contributor to the environmental problems. Recent research supports the efficacy of normative messages to change these behaviors for the good. Normative messages make the social norm salient in the behavioral context. Research shows that the normative messages are effective to encourage “desired” pro-environmental behavior if this behavior is carried out by a numerical majority. However, the pro-environmental consumer behaviors are often carried out by a minority of people only. Making salient these behaviors performed by minority of people in normative messages often backfires because the normative message makes salient that it is normal to perform the “undesirable” environmentally harmful behavior. To overcome this shortfall, research has experimented with highlighting that the desired behavior, although still a behavior by minority people, has increased in prevalence (i.e., a dynamic rather than static normative message). However, when such dynamic normative messages are most effective is less clear. Specifically, according to goal-framing theory, it can be assumed that a dynamic normative message highlighting that an increasing minority of people start carrying out the desirable behavior represents a gain frame, while emphasizing that the behavior performed by majority of people is decreasing indicates a loss frame. So far, research on dynamic normative messages only applied gain frames in their messages. This is surprising, as construal level theory (CLT) suggests that the dynamic normative messages will be more effective when framed as a loss. This study therefore tested whether a dynamic normative message is more effective than a static normative message or no message at all, depending on whether it is framed as a loss or a gain. In a one-way between-subject experimental design, including five experimental conditions [i.e., static descriptive normative message (1) gain framed or (2) loss framed; dynamic descriptive normative message (3) gain framed or (4) loss framed; (5) control condition;N= 270], we found that only dynamic normative messages that were framed as a loss were more effective in encouraging a consumer's intention to reduce meat consumption. Therefore, the dynamic normative messages are effective to encourage pro-environmental consumer behaviors of minority of people, but especially when they are framed as a loss rather than a gain.

Analysis of perceived robustness, adaptability and transformability of Spanish extensive livestock farms under alternative challenging scenarios

CONTEXTExtensive livestock farms in the EU operate in a context of increasing market liberalization and competition, changing consumer patterns and decreasing meat consumption, and increasing climate change-related risks. In turn, EU policy calls for better supporting extensive systems due to their numerous socio-ecological benefits and aims to improve the resilience of extensive livestock farms. OBJECTIVEThe research question underlying this paper is: which resilience capacities may help livestock farmers deal with different types of challenges? The specific research objectives are: 1) to quantify the resilience capacities of robustness, adaptability and transformability and the challenges as perceived by farmers; 2) to identify the main challenges affecting the perceived resilience capacities; and 3) to evaluate how perceived resilience capacities perform under alternative scenarios. METHODSThe paper relies on the use of data from a survey of 120 cattle and sheep farmers in Spain to study the latent property of resilience through farmers' perception. The methodology consists of mixed statistical methods to address the three specific objectives. First, descriptive statistics to quantify the perceived resilience capacities and challenges threatening farming systems; second, fitting Partial Least Square regressions to identify the main challenges affecting robustness, adaptability and transformability; and third, stochastically simulate challenging scenarios to predict the behavior of the three resilience capacities under different types of challenges. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSResilience capacities perform in different manners when dealing with challenges. Adaptability and transformability seem to be more effective under socio-economic long-term pressures. Robustness performs poorly under challenges either in the short- or long-run and appears to be more effective against economic and environmental challenges. Institutional challenges are the main threats to resilience, especially when it comes to reduced subsidies, restricted access to land, and subsidies-induced competition. SIGNIFICANCEThe paper's contribution consists of the empirical advances in understanding the resilience capacities and their ability to deal with different types of challenges, about which the literature offers little guidance. To this end, the paper proposes a quantitative methodological solution that is relevant considering the need for methodological progress towards resilience quantifications. Lastly, the paper may inform policymaking by bringing new evidence into the debate on the future of extensive livestock in the EU based on the case of Spanish cattle and sheep farms.

Adding Dynamic Norm to Environmental Information in Messages Promoting the Reduction of Meat Consumption

ABSTRACT Research has shown that dynamic norm information can promote pro-environmental actions (i.e. information indicating that a growing number of people are behaving pro-environmentally). Yet, the question remains whether adding dynamic norm information would increase the effectiveness of information on the environmental consequences of behavior. We compared the effects of environmental information with versus without dynamic norm information on encouraging reductions in meat consumption, and whether effects would depend on receivers’ intrinsic motivation. We also explored whether message effectiveness would vary according to receivers’ intrinsic motivation to reduce meat consumption. In total 197 volunteers participated in a one-month messaging intervention through a chatbot. Results showed that both environmental and environmental + dynamic norm messages increased positive attitude towards reducing meat consumption, and decreased meat consumption. These effects were still present at follow-up (i.e. one month after the intervention stopped). Interestingly, both messages particularly persuaded receivers with a relatively weak intrinsic motivation to reduce meat consumption, while environmental only messages were even counterproductive in receivers with a relatively strong intrinsic motivation. These results advance our comprehension of the effects of messages aimed at reducing meat consumption.

Meat tastes good, legumes are healthy and meat substitutes are still strange - The practice of protein consumption among Swedish consumers

Replacing some meat with grain legumes would benefit human health, the environment and agriculture. This study analysed legume and meat consumption practices by investigating consumer perceptions and competences relating to lightly processed grain legumes (LPL), legume-based meat substitutes (LBMS) and meat in Sweden, and how these (and demographic variables) influenced stated intention to change consumption. Major differences in consumer perceptions of LPL and LBMS compared with meat related to product attractiveness and status, with meat seen as more fun, popular, suitable in diets and for festive occasions, and tastier. Most consumers knew of the environmental impact of meat and health benefits of LPL. Country of origin, i.e. Swedish origin, was important for many consumers (especially for meat and women). Preferences relating to health and environmental impact were important for intention to decrease meat consumption. Perceived environmental impact was important for intention to change consumption of LPL, but taste, healthiness, weight control, ease of preparation and suitability in the diet were equally or more important. Leveraging stated consumer willingness and intention to eat more LPL by making LPL more accessible to consumers could increase their consumption. For LBMS, there are still important barriers in terms of taste, familiarity and overall attractiveness of these products that need to be overcome to increase their consumption in Sweden.

Introducing Tempeh as a New Plant-Based Protein Food Item on the Danish Market.

Decreasing meat consumption has resulted in a need for new high-quality protein sources. Tempeh is relatively unknown in Denmark and might be capable of meeting this need. The aim of the study was to describe the success criteria for introducing locally produced tempeh and to investigate the sensory quality of three types of tempeh. Only 24% of the consumers in the survey (n = 395) used meat alternatives, which might be explained by a low level of satisfaction with availability. Tempeh was known by 26%—the less meat eaten, the greater the knowledge of tempeh. Twenty-three per cent of the consumers had positive attitudes towards tempeh. The three types of tempeh had markedly different sensory profiles. Nevertheless, the home use test showed that they could be used interchangeably in different recipes. In addition, the consumers were more positive about recipes in which tempeh did not resemble meat compared with meat-inspired recipes. In conclusion, introducing locally produced tempeh on the Danish market is possible but would require further knowledge of the product. In addition, tempeh should be sold as a tasty, high-quality protein food item in its own right. Recipes using tempeh should reflect this and not mimic meat recipes.

Predictors of intention to reduce meat consumption due to environmental reasons – Results from Poland and Slovakia

The current study examines the determinants of the intention to reduce meat consumption for pro-environmental reasons. The research model includes variables from the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Norm Activation Model (NAM). The research was conducted in Poland and Slovakia, which are similar in terms of economic, social, and cultural conditions, located next to each other in the same climate zone, but differ greatly in terms of meat consumption and the direction of its change. Whereas in Poland, the meat consumption trend is rising, it is declining in Slovakia. The results of this study revealed that only attitude toward the impact of meat consumption reduction on the environment and personal norms related positively to intention to reduce meat consumption due to environmental reasons in both countries. However, in the country with decreasing meat consumption (Slovakia), the influence of attitude on intention was much stronger than in the country with increasing meat consumption (Poland). This study is the first to examine which predictors of intention to reduce meat consumption due to environmental reasons are simultaneous in two countries that have significantly different meat consumption levels and directions of change.

How protein containing foods are represented in memory? A categorization study

Protein intake for humans is a major issue as the production of meat is contributing to the excess of greenhouse gas emissions and loss of biodiversity. To cover the upcoming protein demand in a sustainable way, a shift from animal-based food items to plant-based ones will be necessary. The aim of this article is to better understand the representations people have of protein containing food and more specifically, the role of origin and process in these representations. Two categorization tasks of pictures of protein containing foods are used: a forced extraction task and an extended sorting task including a property generation step. Our results show that, globally, the origin dimension is preponderant, except for ready-to-eat dishes for which the process dimension is more important. While plant and animal unprocessed foods are clearly two distinct categories with specific properties, plant-based and animal-based ready-to-eat dishes share a large number of properties and thus could be a potential way of decreasing meat consumption by substituting one by the other.

Identifying barriers to decreasing meat consumption and increasing acceptance of meat substitutes among Swedish consumers

A key lifestyle change people could make to reduce their environmental impact is to reduce their meat consumption. However, meat is still a staple in many people's diet, and some consumers are reluctant to cut down. Meat substitutes, if accepted as adequate replacements for meat, may offer a suitable alternative without leaving consumers feeling dissatisfied. The aim of the present study was to identify psychological barriers to reducing meat consumption and increasing use of meat substitutes among Swedish consumers. Participants engaged in focus group discussions around purchasing, preparing, and consuming meat and meat substitutes. Four main themes were identified through thematic analysis: uncertainty, scepticism, health, and identity. These are discussed in relation to previous work on the barriers to reducing meat consumption. Strategies to communicate the environmental impact of meat to consumers and effect change through behavioural interventions are considered.

Animal food products: policy, market and social issues and their influence on demand and supply of meat.

The present paper aims to contribute to the contentious debate regarding the role of meat as part of a sustainable diet. It uses secondary data to examine the patterns of meat consumption across the globe, and drawing on academic and grey literature, it outlines some of the policy, market and social trends and issues influencing demand and supply of meat. It also presents an overview of the scientific evidence base regarding the pros and cons of meat consumption. The results show that consumption patterns are not homogeneous globally, nor across meat types, with overall meat consumption increasing strongly in developing countries but stagnating in developed countries, and demand for poultry increasing in most regions in contrast to beef. They also illustrate the evolving impact of factors such as income on consumption and the increasing impact of non-economic factors, such as social and policy influences relating to health and the environment, on food choice behaviours, to the extent that such behaviours are increasingly entering a moral space. Given the solid scientific evidence that simultaneously substantiates arguments to increase and decrease meat consumption, it is clear that dietary recommendations need to be context-specific. An important part of the context is the strategies being pursued by researchers and supply chain actors, from farmers through to processors, retailers and food service operators, to improve the sustainability credentials of livestock production. As new evidence emerges from such initiatives, the context will change which means that dietary guidelines will require continuous review.

How important is healthiness, carbon footprint and meat content when purchasing a ready meal? Evidence from a non-hypothetical discrete choice experiment

Recent high-level reports state the population should decrease meat consumption to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as well as improve public health. This calls for new strategies to change dietary habits, especially as many consumers are reluctant to eat less meat. This study tests the effect of labelling a meat-based ready meal with different levels of carbon footprint and healthiness on consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for these attributes. Participants took part in two sequential non-hypothetical discrete choice experiments (DCE). In the first experiment, they completed a DCE where the ready meals (i.e. beef lasagne) were labelled using a dual traffic light labelling system; one labelled for carbon footprint and one for healthiness. In the second experiment, participants repeated the DCE after they were told the carbon footprint and healthiness varied because of the meat and saturated fat content, respectively. The study found that participants were willing to pay a premium for the healthier lasagne and this did not change when they were given the information about saturated fat content. Participants were also willing to pay a premium for lasagne with a lower carbon footprint, but this decreased when they knew these meals contained less meat. Information about the meat content had the unintended consequence of discouraging people to buy lasagne with a low carbon footprint. The study provides an important insight for policy and industry into the effect of labelling information on consumers’ purchasing decisions at a time when people are being encouraged to eat less meat.

Consumers’ associations, perceptions and acceptance of meat and plant-based meat alternatives

The consumption of meat contributes significantly to undesirable effects on the environment. In order to reduce the impact of animal husbandry, one approach is to decrease meat consumption by substituting plant-based meat alternatives. Because the consumption of such meat alternatives is currently rather low, the aim of this research was to identify the barriers that keep people from consuming meat alternatives and increase the probability of future consumption. This was accomplished by exploring free associations people have towards meat and meat alternatives, comparing selected meat products with their respective meat alternatives using the semantic differential, and studying the perceived appropriateness of eating meat alternatives in different consumption situations. To achieve these objectives, we carried out an online survey with participants from Germany (N = 1039). Our results suggest that while meat is being associated with positive terms, meat alternatives were viewed more negatively. The previous findings that meat alternatives should be similar to meat with regard to taste, texture, and ease of preparation were confirmed. Results from the direct comparison of meat with corresponding meat alternatives indicate that meat alternatives are similarly perceived to their processed meat counterparts. Regarding different consumption situations, our results show that eating meat alternatives is perceived to be more appropriate in situations where one eats alone or with family and friends. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that meat alternatives have the best chance of successfully replacing meat when they closely resemble highly processed meat products in taste and texture and are offered at competitive prices. The recommendation for producers of meat alternatives is thus to focus on replicating processed meat products instead of trying to imitate meat cuts such as steak or escalope.