Wildlife Decline Research Articles

Biodiversity offsetting destroys wildlife

Biodiversity offsetting is a net‐outcome policy by which metrics are used to quantify the loss of wildlife and habitat due to development (generally building for housing, industrial purposes or infrastructure). An equivalent or greater quantity of biodiversity is supposedly created, protected or restored elsewhere. The literature on the merit of biodiversity offsetting is equivocal, largely because the policy is prescriptive in favour of development but overlooks the conflict between development and environmental deterioration (much as in other policy within the ambit of ‘sustainable development'). The unadmitted contradiction can be seen relatively easily by appreciating that the site scale and wider scales are largely discrete. Even if biodiversity net gain really were achieved in going from site to site, the wider prejudice of development would still be the overriding influence in the observed (wide‐scale) decline of wildlife. By facilitating ever more human environmental impact, biodiversity offsetting does the opposite of what it purports to do; it destroys wildlife.

The Application of Strict Liability Rule in Rylands V Fletcher to Oil Spills in Nigeria

The Research Paper ‘Application of the Strict Liability Rule in Rylands v Fletcher to Oil Spills in Nigeria’, is a robust and timely evaluation of the legal concept of Strict Liability as it applies to the recurrent problem of oil spillage in Nigeria. For several decades now, crude oil production sites have regularly spilled oil and other petroleum-related chemicals, into the riverine communities of the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria. This has sometimes devastated the fishing and farming livelihoods of the poor villages within the vicinity of such spillages, and agricultural productivity is greatly reduced. This is in addition to air pollution, wildlife decline and overall environmental degradation. This paper looks at efforts to hold accountable those responsible for such degradation using the concept of Strict Liability. In order to obtain justice and compensation for the riverine communities, it must be proven that the offending oil companies were guilty of nuisance and negligence, as described by the Rule in Rylands v Fletcher. The companies are expected to know that their activities are reasonably likely to cause far-reaching destruction to the environment. Concluding, the paper makes recommendations to further tackle the problem of oil spillage in Nigeria.

Multiple anthropogenic pressures challenge the effectiveness of protected areas in western Tanzania

AbstractDespite being key conservation instruments, the ecological effectiveness of protected areas (PAs) is contested. To assess the ecological effectiveness of PAs in the Katavi‐Rukwa Ecosystem (KRE) in western Tanzania, we investigated temporal changes in land‐use and population densities of six large mammal target species (elephant, buffalo, giraffe, zebra, topi, and hartebeest) across areas with different conservation category, ranging from unprotected to strictly protected. During six survey periods between 1991 and 2018, we analyzed data from remote sensing and aerial wildlife surveys to derive (i) spatiotemporal patterns of cropland cover in relation to protection category; (ii) population densities of the six‐target species; and (iii) distribution of these species across protection category, land‐use and environmental variables. During the surveyed period, cropland increased from 3.4 % to 9.6 % on unprotected land and from ≤0.05 % to <1 % on protected land. Wildlife densities of most, but not all target species declined across the entire landscape, yet the onset of the observed wildlife declines occurred several years before the onset of cropland expansion. Logistic regression models indicated that target species preferred the national park over less strictly PAs and areas distant to cropland. As our data do not support a direct link between land‐use change and wildlife densities, additional factors may explain the apparent ecosystem‐wide decline in wildlife. To bolster wildlife conservation in the KRE, we recommended proactive strategies to reduce direct threats to wildlife and cropland expansion toward wildlife dispersal areas and migratory corridors.

Conservation overstretch and long-term decline of wildlife and tourism in the Central African savannas.

When in 2010 the world's governments pledged to increase protected area coverage to 17% of the world's land surface, several Central African countries had already set aside 25% of their northern savannas for conservation. To evaluate the effectiveness of this commitment, we analyzed the results of 68 multispecies surveys conducted in the seven main savanna national parks in Central Africa (1960-2017). We also assembled information on potential drivers of large herbivore population trends (rainfall and number of rangers) and on tourist numbers and revenues. In six out of the seven parks, wild large herbivore populations declined dramatically over time, livestock numbers increased severalfold, and tourism, the pillar under a once thriving local wildlife industry, collapsed. Zakouma National Park (Chad) stood out because its large herbivore populations increased, an increase that was positively correlated with rainfall and number of rangers (a proxy for management inputs). With increasing insecurity and declining revenues, governments find themselves confronted with too few resources to protect vast areas. To deal with this conversation overstretch, we propose to extend the repeatedly promoted solutions--scaled up funding, enhanced management--with a strategic retreat, focusing scarce resources on smaller areas to save wildlife in the Central African savannas.

Local Awareness and Interpretations of Species Extinction in a Rural Chinese Biodiversity Hotspot

Incorporating local perspectives is fundamental to evidence-based conservation, for both understanding complex socio-ecological systems and implementing appropriate management interventions. How local communities understand extinction, and whether these views affect perceptions of biodiversity loss and the effect of anthropogenic activities, has rarely been evaluated explicitly in conservation projects. To target this data gap, we conducted 185 interviews to assess levels and patterns of understanding about wildlife decline and extinction in rural communities around Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan, China, a priority conservation site that has experienced recent species losses. Interviewees showed varying awareness of declines and extirpation of local wildlife species. Two-thirds did not consider the permanent disappearance of wildlife to be possible; among those who did, only one-third could comprehend the scientific term “extinction.” Thinking extinction is possible was associated with identifying declined and extirpated species, but not with perceiving locally-driven human activities, such as hunting, as the reason for wildlife loss. The government was seen as the entity most responsible for conservation. Variation found around local perceptions of extinction, its drivers, and conservation responsibility demonstrates that comprehension of key conservation concepts should not be assumed to be homogenous, highlighting the challenge of transposing scientific concepts between different social and cultural settings. Proactively incorporating local perspectives and worldviews, especially by obtaining context-specific baseline understandings, has major implications for other contexts worldwide and should inform conservation planning and management.

Online survey suggests that dog attacks on wildlife affect many species and every ecoregion of Argentina

Exotic predators constitute an increasingly important conservation threat worldwide. Domestic dogs are considered one of the most commonly-introduced predators, and one of the causes of decline in wildlife on a global scale. Nevertheless, few studies report specific cases of interaction between dogs and the affected species; rather, the possible effect of dogs is inferred, or some cases of interaction are mentioned in studies whose focus is on a different topic. In Argentina, a large, biodiverse country with 18 ecoregions providing habitat for numerous threatened species, scientific research addressing dog-wildlife interaction is lacking. We performed a study at a national level, using an online survey to obtain concrete records of dog attacks on wildlife, focusing mainly on natural areas, as they host several vulnerable species. We categorized the species records according to conservation status and assessed the data obtained by ecoregion. Of the total number of respondents (N = 1006), 68.4% had witnessed a dog chasing or preying on wildlife at least once. At least 80 recognized species had been chased or preyed on by dogs, 6.5% of these species being categorized as Endangered or Vulnerable in national and global Red Lists. Most persecution events corresponded to birds (48%) and mammals (47%). Dog persecution of wildlife was reported throughout every Argentine ecoregion, highlighting the widespread prevalence of this problem. This information will help in the development of initial dog management plans and define priority areas for action, as well as raise social concern regarding this threat, and promote responsible pet ownership.

Nestling diet and parental food provisioning in a declining mountain passerine reveal high sensitivity to climate change

Mountain ecosystems naturally experience strong seasonal weather variations leading to a brief peak in food availability that constrains bird reproduction. Climate change accentuates both the intra‐ and interannual weather variability, which in turn can reduce the predictability of food resources and hence impact population demography. Yet, relatively little is known about the influence of environmental factors on the breeding ecology of mountain birds. Here, we quantified the nestling diet and provisioning behaviour of the Alpine ring ouzel Turdus torquatus alpestris, an emblematic and declining thrush species typical of central European treeline ecotones, and relate these parameters to local weather conditions. Nests were monitored with camcorders to assess prey provisioning frequency and identify items delivered by parents to nestlings, as well as to estimate prey biomass. Our results indicate the prominence of earthworms (Lumbricidae) in the nestling diet, both in terms of abundance (80%) and biomass (90%). Elevated ambient temperatures negatively impacted both prey provisioning rates and biomass delivered to chicks by parents, while rainfall had a positive effect on the delivered biomass. The mean prey item biomass decreased throughout the breeding season, as did the proportion of earthworms in nestlings' diet. These findings highlight the key role played by local weather in parental provisioning behaviour, probably reflecting the low availability of the staple food source, earthworms, in warm and dry weather contexts. In particular, they underpin how climate alterations, notably increasing ambient temperatures and changing precipitation regimes, could impact mountain birds. Although effects on reproductive performance and population dynamics still ought to be studied, these results further our understanding of the ecological mechanisms potentially at play in the decline of wildlife inhabiting high‐elevation, climate‐sensitive ecosystems.

Ten bridges on the road to recovering Canada’s endangered species

Wildlife is declining around the world. Many developed nations have enacted legislation on endangered species protection and provide funding for wildlife recovery. Protecting endangered species is also supported by the public and judiciary. Yet, despite what appear as enabling conditions, wild species continue to decline. Our paper explores pathways to endangered species recovery by analyzing the barriers that have been identified in Canada, the United States, and Australia. We summarize these findings based on Canada’s Species at Risk Conservation Cycle (assessment, protection, recovery planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation) and then identify 10 “bridges” that could help overcome these barriers and bend our current trajectory of wildlife loss to recovery. These bridges include ecosystem approaches to recovery, building capacity for community co-governance, linking wildlife recovery to ecosystem services, and improving our storytelling about the loss and recovery of wildlife. The focus of our conclusions is the Canadian setting, but our findings can be applied in other national and subnational settings to reverse the decline of wildlife and halt extinction.

Ecological value of different vegetated strip types in providing valuable insect-rich habitats for grey partridge chicks

The intensification and specialisation of agriculture has contributed to farmland wildlife decline, including farmland birds. Grey partridge is a farmland species which has experienced a significant decline across Europe in recent decades. Chick survival rate is a key determinant of grey partridge population change and depends essentially on the availability of insect food. In this study, ground-dwelling and canopy-dwelling insects were collected using pitfall trapping and sweep netting methodologies, respectively, on different strip types in an area established for the conservation of grey partridge. The aim was to further our understanding of the value of different vegetated strip types in providing insect-rich habitats for grey partridge chicks. Overall, wildflower strip (WS) provided the greatest insect abundance. Significantly more ground-dwelling insects were found on WS, natural regeneration (NS) and leguminous strips (LS) than on grass strip (GS). Canopy-dwelling insects were also significantly more abundant on WS compared to all other strip types. This study highlights that WSs may represent important habitats in providing insect-rich food for grey partridge chicks and sowing these strips may therefore play a key role in decreasing chick mortality and supporting grey partridge conservation. It also demonstrates that other different vegetated strip types may still provide strip-specific insect taxa, in addition to other valuable resources. This study recommends a complex mosaic of different strip types to provide key resources for grey partridge, such as insect and plant food, nesting habitats and overwinter cover.

Wildlife Trade Policy and the Decline of Wildlife

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is the international agreement that regulates international trade in wildlife to prevent its decline. Little is known about the effectiveness of its trade restrictions and bans. Combining the largest available panel database on wildlife population sizes of vertebrates with the history of species’ inclusion into CITES, we find that populations increase by 20% after their species’ inclusion into CITES. This effect is driven by populations in countries with thorough enforcement. Outright trade bans increase wildlife, but restrictions that incentivize sustainable use have more immediate positive effects.

Long-term trends in wildlife community structure and functional diversity in a village hunting zone in southeast Cameroon

Hunting may be the greatest threat to wildlife populations across the Congo basin. Large-bodied species are the most vulnerable; alterations in assemblages of such keystone species can affect many important ecological functions. There may be a reduction or loss of ecological services, such as seed dispersal. Monitoring functional diversity within a wildlife community alongside descriptions of wildlife community structure (abundances and species richness) increases understanding of how well a system can withstand disturbance, or recover following it (i.e., its ecological resilience). Between 2002 and 2016, changes in wildlife abundance and diversity of functional traits related to resource use and energy flow were monitored in a tropical forest wildlife community in southeast Cameroon, where hunting activities have escalated in the last decade. Wildlife abundances significantly decreased by 2009, and species richness and functional diversity declined by 2016. This reduction in functional diversity suggests that the wildlife community has been considerably altered, compromising ecological functions, and indicating the start of ecological decay. The study found a significant reduction in keystone species, such as great apes and elephants, suggesting that their decline as a result of hunting is leading to ecological imbalance. The results suggest that, beyond a certain threshold of wildlife decline, wildlife community collapse and ecological decay are likely. Identifying such thresholds can inform sustainable wildlife management and help monitor the health or integrity of the ecosystem, and its ability to provide globally significant ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and storage.

Detection of Animal Occurrence Using an Unmanned System

Abstract In recent decades, there has been an increase in the work speed and breadth of agricultural technology used to mow grasses. This modernization has resulted in a decline in wildlife. There are several conventional ways to prevent these losses. The most well-known and simplest technique is to search for wild animals using dogs and a phalanx. The dogs are trained to systematically search the area and drive the animals out. Efficiency is increased when visiting a site regularly, thus disturbing the animals, which are then consequently less likely to fawn. The effectiveness of the swarm line depends on the number of participants involved. The recommended spacing is set at 1–3 m. An effective modern means seems to be the use of an unmanned system and thermal cameras. This article presents a proof of concept of a detection system that is capable of detecting the object searched for in grassy vegetation with more than 96% success, regardless of the flight level. The study contributes to automated detection based on the basic principles of threshold.

A focus on the European hamster to illustrate how to monitor endangered species.

Agriculture intensification, marked by the generalization of crop monoculture, by the increase in plot size and by the reduction of plant diversity, has led to huge decline in wildlife in European farmlands. In such habitat, research has long been biased towards birds and invertebrates, while very few studies have investigated the effect on small mammals. Considering the European hamster, Cricetus cricetus, we therefore review the different techniques that can be used to investigate the impact of environmental changes and conservation measures in small and endangered wild mammals. We suggest that only a multidisciplinary approach will allow exploration of these effects, combining experimental laboratory work on captive-bred animals with the monitoring of wild individuals. In particular, individual energy balance has to be investigated and measured as accurately as possible, through either biochemical or bio-logging techniques. It is, indeed, the most affected physiological trait in a changing environment, as it determines both the reproductive output and the survival of the individual. We also discuss the inconvenience of capture-release approaches for such an endangered species and emphasize the disturbance that experimental protocols could impose on the hamster.

Monitoring of Land Use/Cover Change Using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques: A case study of Loliondo Game Controlled Area, Tanzania

Loliondo Game Controlled Area (LGCA) is unique in East Africa that provides mixed land use activities for the community. The main land uses in LGCA are livestock keeping, wildlife conservation, small scale agriculture, tourism and hunting of wild animals. For decades, Maasai pastoralists coexisted with LGCA but restricted to hunt, set snares and conducting large scale farming. From the year 2000 expansion of agricultural activities have been noted which has escalated the decline of wildlife. I this study the land use/cover change occurred in LGCA for the period of 20 years have been determined and assessed. Supervised classification method was used whereby six classes namely forest, bare land, sand, water, grass land and agriculture were categorized. The results show that from 1996 to 2016 there is a major land cover change on forest, agriculture, bare land, grassland, water bodies and sand by 19.63%, 8.74%, 15.32%, 50.08%, 4.51 %and 1.72%, respectively. Specifically, forest cover is decreasing at 1467.81 ha per year while agriculture is increasing at the rate of 1,467 ha per year. The study concluded that clearing of forest and large scale agriculture has destroyed vegetation cover threatening the existence of wildlife which to a great extent requires immediate measures to counterbalance this effect.

Armed conflicts and wildlife decline: Challenges and recommendations for effective conservation policy in the Sahara‐Sahel

AbstractIncreasing conflicts and social insecurity are expected to accelerate biodiversity decline and escalate illegal wildlife killing. Sahara‐Sahel megafauna has experienced recent continuous decline due to unsustainable hunting pressure. Here, we provide the best available data on distribution and population trends of threatened, large vertebrates, to illustrate how escalating regional conflict (565% growth since 2011) is hastening population decline in areas that were formerly refugia for megafauna. Without conservation action, the unique and iconic biodiversity of Earth's largest desert will be forever lost. We recommend: (1) establishing strong commitments for change in global attitude toward nature; (2) engraining a culture of environmental responsibility among all stakeholders; (3) fostering environmental awareness to drive societal change; (4) reinforcing regional security and firearms control; and (5) implementing local research and wildlife monitoring schemes. We identify relevant international partners needed to tackle these challenges and to make strong policy change for biodiversity conservation and regional stability.

Increasing Use of Human-Dominated Habitats as CO2 Emissions Warm and Acidify Oceans

Urban and artificial structures are increasingly added to the world’s coasts during a time in which changing climate is forecast to drive shifts in naturally occurring habitats. We ask whether the role of artificial structures as marine habitats will increase in importance relative to their natural counterparts, particularly as natural habitats are negatively affected by ocean warming and acidification. To evaluate this model, we contrasted use of natural (kelp forest and turfing algae) and artificial habitat (plastic pier-piling) by a nest-building amphipod (Cymadusa pemptos) under current and future climate conditions of CO2 and temperature. Under future conditions, amphipod populations in mesocosms increased, but this did not lead to greater proportional colonization of kelp and turf. Instead, colonization doubled in artificial habitats, and there was increasing production and occupation of nests on artificial habitats relative to natural habitats. In an age when human modification of natural substrata is increasingly cited as an agent of wildlife decline, understanding the future role of artificial habitats as replacement dwellings for natural habitats is critical. We pioneer an understanding of the future role of natural and artificial habitats, identifying the possibility that the role of urban structures as marine habitats may only increase.

Not Seeing the Cattle for the Elephants: The Implications of Discursive Linkages between Boko Haram and Wildlife Poaching in Waza National Park, Cameroon

The decline of wildlife in Central and West African border parks has been directly linked to Islamic terrorism in the region in media and government discourse. Using Waza National Park in the Far North Region of Cameroon as a case study, we show that wildlife declines in the park long preceded the appearance of Boko Haram, the extremist group best known for kidnapping over 200 girls in northern Nigeria. We also show that there is no evidence that Boko Haram are using wildlife products from the park to sustain their operations. Instead, the “poacher-as-terrorist” narrative obscures complex, historically embedded reasons for insecurity in northern Cameroon as well as massive losses of biodiversity in this region. The media and governments' focus on the “poacher-as-terrorist” narrative has important implications for the victims of Boko Haram, including mobile pastoralists. It is their cattle that are most likely a major source of sustenance and funding for the operations of Boko Haram. However, because these mobile pastoralist groups are “invisible” in the bush, their struggles remain ignored. We argue that the continued espousal of the “poacher-as-terrorist” narrative allows Boko Haram violence against mobile pastoralists to continue, and makes way for further environmental degradation in Cameroon's protected areas.

Monocultural sowing in mesocosms decreases the species richness of weeds and invertebrates and critically reduces the fitness of the endangered European hamster.

Intensive cereal monoculture is currently the main cause of biodiversity decline in Europe. However, it is difficult to disentangle the effects of intensive monoculture (e.g. pesticide use, mechanical ploughing and reduced protective cover), let alone evaluate how far the reduction of crop diversity affects biodiversity. It remains unclearto which extent the consequent decrease in food resources affects farmland biodiversity, and particularly vertebrate species. We therefore designed this study in mesocosms to investigate the effects of monoculture crops (organic wheat or corn seeds) and mixed crops (a combination of organic wheat, corn, sunflower and alfalfa seeds) on (1) the species richness of weeds and invertebrates and (2) the reproductive success of the European hamster (Cricetus cricetus), a critically endangered umbrella species of European farmlands. We found a negative impact of organic monoculture crops on plant and invertebrate species richness, with values respectively 38% and 28% lower than those obtained for mixed organic crops. The reproductive success of hamsters was reduced by 82% in monoculture mesocosms. These results highlight that monoculture per se can be detrimental for farmland biodiversity (i.e. from plants to vertebrates), even before taking into account the use of pesticide and mechanization. We believe that future research should further consider how food reduction in agroecosystems affects farmland wildlife, including vertebrates. Moreover, we argue that conservation actions must focus on restoring plant diversity on farmland to reverse the observed trend in farmland wildlife decline.

What specific plant traits support ecosystem services such as pollination, bio-control and water quality protection in temperate climates? A systematic map protocol

BackgroundAgricultural intensification has increased diffuse source pollution within water catchments, reduced heterogeneity within the landscape and caused major declines in farmland wildlife, including birds, mammals, invertebrates and wildflowers. This increase in pollution and wildlife decline, has effected three vital ecosystem services, pollination, biological pest control and water quality protection. The morphological traits of plant species, such as floral display size and leaf area, provide support to these services and vegetative strips can be established with plants that have these desirable traits. Vegetative strips are widely used across Europe and integrated into government environmental schemes such as The Common Agricultural Policy and The Water Framework Directive. However, issues of land availability and food security require a sustainable intensification of current agricultural practices. One component of this process is to sow vegetative strips that are designed to support multiple ecosystem services. To do this, combinations of plant species that will support specific ecosystem services, have been designed. However, to enable a fully-informed design process, evidence must be collated on which specific plant traits provide the support to the target ecosystem services. We propose to systematically map all evidence on which specific plant traits provide support for three of the most vital ecosystem services, pollination, bio-control and water quality protection. Information from this map could inform future decisions on which plant species are suitable for inclusion within a multifunctional vegetative strip that aims to provide the target ecosystem services. The aim of this systematic map is to create a searchable database of studies that demonstrate evidence of plant traits and how they support the named ecosystem services.MethodsSeven bibliographic databases, 25 organisational websites and 2 search engines, will be systematically searched with predefined and tested key search terms. All searches will be undertaken in English and only those undertaken in a temperate climate zone will be considered. Studies found will be screened at title, abstract and full text levels, recording the number of excluded articles. Following full text assessment, the meta-data of included studies will be incorporated into a systematic map database in Microsoft Access. A report will summarise the evidence, highlight any knowledge gaps, and provide recommendations for future research.

Living on the edge: characteristics of human–wildlife conflict in a traditional livestock community in Botswana

Context Conflicts between wildlife and humans have occurred for millennia, and are major drivers of wildlife decline. To promote coexistence, Botswana established buffer zones called wildlife-management areas (WMAs) adjacent to National Parks and Reserves where communities assume stewardship of wildlife and derive financial benefits from it. In contrast, communities outside WMAs are generally excluded from these benefits despite incurring ‘coexistence costs’, including crop damage and livestock depredation, although they may receive compensation for these losses. Aims To investigate the perceptions and actions of a livestock farming community outside (but surrounded by) WMAs in northern Botswana, especially in relation to predator management. Methods We conducted standard-format interviews with 62 heads of households (cattleposts), and evaluated responses using descriptive and multivariate statistics. Key results Almost half (46%) of respondents expressed negative perceptions of predators, with 67% reporting losses to predation. After disease, predation was the most commonly reported source of livestock losses. Increased age of the head of household was the strongest predictor of reported predation. Few households employed husbandry beyond kraaling at night, but some (21%) reported conducting lethal control of predators. Reported use of lethal control was independent of the household experience with predation and whether they derived financial benefits from wildlife. Instead, households with larger herds were more likely to report using lethal control, despite the most educated farmers tending to have larger herds. Lethal control was almost twice as likely in households previously denied government compensation for losses (42%) than in those granted compensation (23%). Perhaps as a result of perceived failures of the government compensation scheme, most households (91%) supported the development of an independent insurance program, with 67% expressing willingness to pay a premium. Conclusions Our results challenge the assumption that deriving financial benefit from wildlife increases tolerance. A measurable disconnect also exists between the willingness of a household to employ lethal control and their experience with predation, suggesting that lethal control was used pre-emptively rather than reactively. Implications Efforts must be made to connect the financial costs incurred during farming alongside wildlife with the financial benefits derived from wildlife. Where compensation schemes exist, timely payments may reduce retaliatory killing.