Decarbonisation Targets Research Articles

Data Envelopment Analysis-Based Approach to Improving of the Budget Allocation System for Decarbonization Targets

Energy innovation plays an important role in the transition to a zero-carbon economy. Governments in IEA member countries are investing in the R&D, demonstration, and deployment of new energy technologies as part of their energy and climate policies. However, government subsidies for energy innovation are not always efficient in achieving climate policy goals. This paper proposes a two-stage Data Envelopment Analysis model with shared inputs to determine the optimal allocation of public funds for the energy innovation process. The innovation process is divided into two stages: the R&D stage and the commercialization stage. The inputs to the model (budget expenditures for energy innovations) are distributed between the first and second stages. As intermediate products, we use the number of patents in clean energy and hydrocarbon energy. The outputs of the model are the changes in carbon intensity and energy efficiency. This model can be used to assess the effectiveness of government spending on energy innovation. The results show that some IEA member countries should allocate a large part of the fossil fuel technology budget (more than 70%) to the research and development phase. The proposed model can support decision making at the international level to increase the effectiveness of public policies in achieving decarbonization and energy efficiency goals.

Embodied Carbon Impacts of Building Envelope Systems

Abstract As buildings become more energy efficient due to stringent building codes, the emphasis on reducing the embodied carbon (EC) in the built environment has become significant. Studies predict that between 2020 and 2050, new buildings will surpass operational emissions with higher embodied emissions in their initial decade and throughout their life cycle. To meet decarbonization targets, reducing EC through low-carbon, high-performance building designs and grid decarbonization is crucial. This research analyzes the embodied carbon intensity of 26 commonly used envelope systems of large buildings in Ontario’s Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area (GTHA) using the attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) methodology. Results highlight the impact of cladding materials, insulation layers, and backup structures on EC. The study ranks envelope assemblies based on their EC intensity (ECI), providing insights for designers to balance operational and embodied emissions. Noteworthy findings include the relatively high ECI of floor systems compared to exterior wall and roof systems. It also emphasized the challenges in assessing the environmental impacts of wood-based products and the need for uncertainty analysis and transparent reporting. The study contributes to understanding EC in building envelopes, guiding design teams toward low-carbon structures and more informed decision-making. As research progresses, recommendations include consequential analysis, assessing biogenic carbon impacts, and material durability studies for a deeper insight on the environmental impacts of building envelope materials.

Co-benefits of the liquid hydrogen economy and LNG economy: Advances in LNG integrating LH2 production processes

Against the global energy transition towards decarbonization and zero-carbon targets, hydrogen (H2) has emerged as a promising medium for energy storage and transportation in large-scale systems. Simultaneously, liquefied natural gas (LNG), serves as a transitional resource in moving towards cleaner energy sources. Consequently, the integration of LNG into liquid hydrogen (LH2) has garnered significant attention in recent years. This paper comprehensively reviews current research on LH2 production processes by integrating the energy mass of LNG. These processes, which include pre-cooling H2 utilizing the cold energy released from LNG regasification, producing blue H2 from natural gas (NG) derived from LNG regasification, synergistic liquefaction of NG and H2, and simultaneous production of LNG and LH2 from industrial by-products, can markedly increase the thermodynamic efficiency. Furthermore, this study explores potential future developments that could benefit both aspects of the LH2-LNG economy, thereby expanding the scope of related research. The integration of LNG into the LH2 production process through an energy mass approach, aimed at creating a mutually beneficial LH2-LNG economy, is an effective strategy for fostering energy transition. Finally, a brief discussion is presented on the constraints and challenges that may affect the future growth of the global LH2-LNG economy.

Dynamic analysis of carbon emissions from construction and demolition activities in Japan: Revealed by high-resolution 4D-GIS modeling

To meet the 2050 decarbonization target of the global buildings and construction sector, more attention is needed to reduce carbon emissions from construction and demolition. However, current national carbon accounting studies for these activities remain limited in spatial granularity and localized applicability. This study developed a bottom-up spatiotemporal database of carbon emissions from building construction and demolition in Japan via integrating a geographic information system-based building stock model, statistical data, and survey information. Focusing on municipal-level emissions, the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index approach was used to decompose spatiotemporal variations and identify the contributing factors. Results indicate that carbon emissions from Japan's construction and demolition activities fell by more than 50% between 2005 and 2020, largely due to declining new/demolished-to-stock ratio, suggesting a transition to a stock-based society. Central cities' reliance on carbon-intensive buildings positively contributed to spatial variations in their construction emissions, underscoring the importance of sustainable materials and timber designs. Differences between prefectures in demolition emission intensity highlighted the strategic placement of recycling facilities in key regions to curb transportation-related emissions. Overall, these findings provided data reference for local governments to devise tailored policies for managing construction and demolition emissions.

Energy flexibility in aerospace manufacturing: The case of low carbon intensity production

In this paper, the prospects of energy flexibility in mitigating the environmental impact of aerospace manufacturing are explored. In collaboration with a UK-based aerospace manufacturing enterprise, demand response, in particular production time, is explored under different stochastic scenarios. This is done through a decision-support framework that consists of a stochastic discrete-event simulation model that tests different scenarios under a full factorial design of experiments framework. The simulation model tests various improvement strategies pertaining to prioritisation rules, production start-up rules, and operating hours. The model aids in scheduling energy-intensive processes, so the time of performing such processes can coincide with times of the day when the energy’s carbon intensity is at its lowest. The use case constitutes a family of aluminium structural aerospace components that are characterised by high production rate. Results demonstrate promising potential of the proposed approach, with the best-case scenario resulting in a 7% reduction in CO2e emissions. Analysis of the results demonstrate that operational decisions that do not require infrastructural changes or capital expenditures can contribute favourably to achieving net-zero targets. This research offers useful insights on leveraging operational short-term decisions to meet the aerospace manufacturing’s sector decarbonisation targets.

Renewable portfolio development in parallel with green industrial development policies towards the decarbonization targets of industrial gas producers in China

In order to reduce carbon emissions and promote the development of renewable energy in China, a tripartite evolutionary game model of the government, industrial gas producers (IGP) and power generation groups (PGG) is constructed by considering the policy mechanism of renewable portfolio standard (RPS) in parallel with industrial green development, and combining with the government's incentives and disincentives mechanism. Simulation analysis is carried out to explore the effects of different parameters on the cooperative transformation of enterprises under different governmental strategies. The results show that there is a mutual assistance mechanism between RPS and industrial green development, and the key lies in whether IGP and PGG can form a cooperative mechanism, while the government's incentives and disincentives mechanism is the key to promote the formation of cooperative mechanisms between the two parties. If the government adopts punitive measures, it should take into account the transformation costs of IGP and the scale of PGG, and if it adopts subsidy measures, it should give priority to helping enterprises with lower transformation costs, otherwise it will face greater financial pressure. The compatibility of IGP and PGG is the key to determining whether the two sides can realize the transformation.

Analysis of the relationship between carbon pricing and green innovation: A multidimensional study in 35 countries

Increased greenhouse gas emissions are the main cause of global warming, leading to effects such as rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and unprecedented species extinction. The 2015 Paris Agreement, with the participation of 195 countries, aimed to reduce CO₂e emissions and limit the increase in global temperature to 2 °C compared to pre-industrial levels. Academia, the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development emphasize CO₂e pricing as a crucial initiative to mitigate global warming and promote a low-carbon economy. This can be achieved through taxes on fossil fuel emissions or a carbon credit auction system such as the Emissions Trading System (ETS). However, complexity arises when considering cross-border pricing limitations and the concern that companies may relocate to countries with less stringent environmental regulations. Therefore, the objective of this study is to investigate the correlations between the 35 countries that have CO₂e pricing practices. Data and methods involved statistical analysis of three exogenous variables using SPSS software: a) countries' position in the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) ranking; b) historical number of green patents registered in these countries; and c) the number of scientific articles published with decarbonization as a central topic. The results suggest a virtuous cycle in these countries, where CO₂e pricing leads to an increase in green articles and patents, contributing to their improved position in the global EPI ranking. The main implications of this study are that achieving the objectives of the Paris Agreement will require a collective effort from all countries, and therefore, good practices must be encouraged and replicated. Meeting decarbonization targets necessitates structural changes, such as those in the current energy model. This virtuous cycle should be extended to other countries that do not yet practice CO₂e pricing to advance the goal of mitigating global warming and transitioning to a low-carbon economy.

Effects of emissions caps on the costs and feasibility of low-carbon hydrogen in the European ammonia industry

The European ammonia industry emits 36 million tons of carbon dioxide annually, primarily from steam methane reforming (SMR) hydrogen production. These emissions can be mitigated by producing hydrogen via water electrolysis using dedicated renewables with grid backup. This study investigates the impact of decarbonization targets for hydrogen synthesis on the economic viability and technical feasibility of retrofitting existing European ammonia plants for on-site, semi-islanded electrolytic hydrogen production. Results show that electrolytic hydrogen cuts emissions, on average, by 85% (36%-100% based on grid price and carbon intensity), even without enforcing emission limits. However, an optimal lifespan average well-to-gate emission cap of 1 kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e)/kg H2 leads to a 95% reduction (92%-100%) while maintaining cost-competitiveness with SMR in renewable-rich regions (mean levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) of 4.1 euro/kg H2). Conversely, a 100% emissions reduction target dramatically increases costs (mean LCOH: 6.3 euro/kg H2) and land area for renewables installations, likely hindering the transition to electrolytic hydrogen in regions with poor renewables and limited land. Increasing plant flexibility effectively reduces costs, particularly in off-grid plants (mean reduction: 32%). This work guides policymakers in defining cost-effective decarbonization targets and identifying region-based strategies to support an electrolytic hydrogen-fed ammonia industry.

Designing new energy markets to promote renewables

The drive toward decarbonization has spurred the growth of renewable energy sources, reshaping energy production and consumption patterns. As the energy landscape evolves, so must the market design supporting it to steer the integration of renewable energy. Addressing the challenges of promoting distributed renewable energy is paramount for developing a cleaner energy system and meeting decarbonization targets. This study presents a modern market design that efficiently integrates renewable energy sources, long-term contracts, and flexibility technologies into a single evolved market framework. The approach described herein provides proper price signals for diverse assets and decouples renewable energy from fossil fuels, ensuring economic viability and efficient integration. Taking into consideration key barriers and drivers, the findings provide insights for perfecting energy markets, meeting decarbonization targets, and guiding policymaking to boost cleaner energy systems.

Environmental Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems with Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: A Comparative Life Cycle Analysis of Polish and Norwegian Cases

Low-carbon electricity and heat production is essential for keeping the decarbonization targets and climate mitigation goals. Thus, an accurate understanding of the potential environmental impacts constitutes a key aspect not only for the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions but also for other environmental categories. Life cycle assessment allows us to conduct an overall evaluation of a given process or system through its whole lifetime across various environmental indicators. This study focused on construction, operation and maintenance, and end-of-life phases, which were analyzed based on the ReCiPe 2016 method. Within this work, authors assessed the environmental performance of one of the renewable energy sources—Enhanced Geothermal Systems, which utilize supercritical carbon dioxide as a working fluid to produce electricity and heat. Heat for the process is extracted from hot, dry rocks, typically located at depths of approximately 4–5 km, and requires appropriate stimulation to enable fluid flow. Consequently, drilling and site preparation entail significant energy and material inputs. This stage, based on conducted calculations, exhibits the highest global warming potential, with values between 5.2 and 30.1 kgCO2eq/MWhel, corresponding to approximately 65%, 86%, and 94% in terms of overall impacts for ecosystems, human health, and resources categories, respectively. Moreover, the study authors compared the EGS impacts for the Polish and Norwegian conditions. Obtained results indicated that due to much higher electricity output from the Norwegian plant, which is sited offshore, the environmental influence remains the lowest, at a level of 11.9 kgCO2eq/MWhel. Polish cases range between 38.7 and 54.1 kgCO2eq/MWhel of global warming potential in terms of electricity production. Regarding power generation only, the impacts in the case of the Norwegian facility are two to five times lower than for the installation in the Polish conditions.

Role of energy transition in easing energy security risk and decreasing CO2 emissions: Disaggregated level evidence from the USA by quantile-based models

Consistent with the increasing environmental interest, the clean energy transition is highly critical to achieving decarbonization targets. Also, energy security has become an important topic under the shadow of the energy crisis,. Accordingly, countries have been trying to stimulate clean energy use to preserve the environment and ensure energy security. So, considering the leading role of economic size and volume of energy use, the study examines the USA to define whether energy transition helps decrease energy security risk (ESR) and curb CO2 emissions. So, the study applies a disaggregated level analysis by performing quantile-based models for the period from 2001/Q1 through 2022/Q4. The results demonstrate that (i) the energy transition index decreases environmental ESR at higher quantiles and reliability ESR at lower and middle quantiles, whereas it is not beneficial in declining economic and geopolitical ESR; (ii) energy transition curbs CO2 emissions in building and transport sectors at lower quantiles, whereas it does not help decrease CO2 emissions in industrial and power sectors; (iii) energy transition is mostly ineffective on ESR, whereas it is highly effective in curbing CO2 emissions in all sectors except for transport across various quantiles as time passes; (iv) the results differ according to the aggregated and disaggregated levels; (v) the results are consistent across main and alternative models. Hence, the study highlights the dominant effect of energy transition in curbing sectoral CO2 emissions rather than easing ESR. Accordingly, the study discusses various policy implications for the USA.

China's provincial carbon emission driving factors analysis and scenario forecasting

Studying the drivers of China's carbon emissions at the provincial level can clarify differences in carbon emissions due to initial resource endowments and explore pathways to achieve China's 2030 carbon peak and 2060 carbon-neutral commitments (China's 30.60 decarbonization target). In this paper, the carbon emissions of 30 provinces in China during 2000–2019 were calculated using the emission coefficient method. The LMDI model was used to investigate each province's carbon emission drivers. On this basis, the STIRPAT model is used to predict the carbon emissions of each province under three scenarios: low carbon, baseline, and high carbon. The results show that: (1) China's carbon emissions have significant regional differences, and the trend of total carbon emissions is consistent with that of per capita carbon emissions; (2) Economic development contributes the most to regional carbon emission; (3) China's carbon emission trend can be divided into four patterns: gathering type, discrete type, overlapping type, and idiotype. The results enrich the research on carbon emission drivers and forecasts, provide targeted policy recommendations for China to coordinate regional economic development, energy conservation, and carbon emission reduction, and explore a path for China to achieve the 30.60 decarbonization goal.

Scenario-based multi-criteria evaluation of sector coupling-based technology pathways for decarbonization with varying degrees of disruption

The concept of sector coupling is gaining international attention as a means to drive further decarbonization. Our study develops and simulates 27 sector coupling technology combinations based on assumptions derived from the literature and then evaluates their efficacy in meeting Germany's CO2 emission targets for 2030, 2045, and 2050, respectively. Our findings reveal that only ambitious technological pathways involving disruptive innovations in multiple sectors offer realistic pathways for achieving the country's decarbonization targets. Using a scoring system that incorporates technical and socioeconomic indicators, we reveal the relation between reductions in CO2 emissions and multi-criteria-based scores assigned to specific sector coupling scenarios. Our results favor emission reductions from both a socio-economic perspective and a purely economic one, and they highlight the benefits of disruptive sectoral linkages in achieving emission reduction targets. Nevertheless, none of the technology combinations analyzed here meet the more ambitious German emission targets set in 2021.

I-ISSUES—Industrial-Interoperable Safe and Secure Urban Energy Systems

Urban planners are involved in designing future urban energy systems as a part of their path toward decarbonization or Net Zero targets before 2050. In this process, new energy and information flows between industrial and urban regions should be considered, as well as safety and security managerial aspects regarding the existing and new infrastructures. This research aims to help engineering professionals and public planners define new collaboration dynamics to make industrial energy systems safer, more secure, and interoperable, surpassing the existing knowledge. Firstly, several recent R&D aspects are analyzed, demonstrating the organizational gap and providing early integration or knowledge reuse opportunities from R&D projects. After that, the authors present a model called Industrial-Interoperable Safe and Secure Urban Energy Systems (i-ISSUES), a multi-disciplinary approach combining classic urban energy planning, information technology use, safety and security management, and systems engineering as the integrated disciplines. The model detects research trends, providing a first set of readings with some improvements.

Technical Requirements for 2023 IMO GHG Strategy

The 80th session of the IMO Maritime Environment Protection Committee (MEPC 80) adopted the 2023 IMO Strategy on the Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships (2023 IMO GHG Strategy), with enhanced targets to tackle harmful emissions. This study strives to provide an exact interpretation of the target of the 2023 IMO GHG Strategy and reveal the technical requirements therein. Decarbonization targets were expressed in IMO GHG emission scenarios for specifications. Model calculations and parameterizations were in line with IMO GHG reduction principles and decarbonizing practices in the shipping sector to avoid the prejudicial tendency of alternative fuels and the overestimated integral efficiency of short-term measures in existing predictions. IMO DCS data were used for the first time to gain reliable practical efficiencies of newly adopted regulations and further reduce the model uncertainty. The results demonstrated that the decarbonization goals for emission intensity were actually 51.5–62.5% in the IMO GHG reduction scenarios, which was much higher than the IMO recommended value of 40% as the target. Combined with the continuous applications of short-term measures, onshore power and regulations were required to contribute their maximum potential no later than the year 2030. Even so, considerable penetration (15.0–26.0%) of alternative fuels will be required by 2030 to achieve the decarbonization goals in the 90% and 130% scenarios, respectively, both far beyond the expected value in the 2023 IMO GHG Strategy (i.e., 5–10%). Until 2050, decarbonization from alternative fuels is required to achieve ~95%. Sustainable biodiesel and LNG are the necessary choices in all time periods, while the roles of e-methanol and e-ammonia deserve to be considered in the long term. Our findings highlight the intense technical requirements behind the 2023 IMO GHG Strategy and provide a pathway option for a fair and impartial transition to zero GHG emissions in the shipping sector, which might be meaningful to policymakers.

A power dispatch allocation strategy to produce green hydrogen in a grid-integrated offshore hybrid energy system

A dedicated grid-tied offshore hybrid energy system for hydrogen production is a promising solution to unlock the full benefit of offshore wind and solar energy and realize decarbonization and sustainable energy security targets in electricity and other sectors. Current knowledge of these offshore hybrid systems is limited, particularly in the integration, component control, and allocation aspects. Therefore, a grid-integrated analytical model with a power dispatch allocation strategy between the grid and electrolyzer for the co-production of hydrogen from the offshore hybrid energy system is developed in this paper. While producing hydrogen, the proposed offshore hybrid energy system supplies a percentage of its capacity to the onshore grid facility, and the amount of the electricity is quantified based on the electricity market price and available total offshore generation. The detailed controls of each component are discussed. A case study considers a hypothetical hybrid offshore energy system of 10 MW situated in a potential offshore off the NSW of Australia based on realistic metrological data. A grid-scale proton-exchange membrane electrolyzer stack is used and a model predictive power controller is implemented on the distributed hydrogen generation scheme. The model is helpful for the assessment or optimization of both the economics and feasibility of the dedicated offshore hybrid energy farm for hydrogen production systems.

Sustainability and Resilience Assessment Methods: A Literature Review to Support the Decarbonization Target for the Construction Sector

It is a well-known issue that the 2050 target of carbon emissions neutrality will be reached only with the co-operation of all the interested sectors, and the construction sector could be one of the main contributors to this change. With the built environment globally responsible for about 40% of annual global energy-related CO2 emissions, the construction sector offers an important opportunity to drive transformative change and presents the most challenging mitigation potential among all industrial sectors, which also brings opportunities for adopting sustainability practices and increasing resilience. This paper presents a systematic literature review of those two pivotal concepts to reach the decarbonization goal: sustainability and resilience. Starting from an extensive literature review (2536 scientific documents) based on the PRISMA statement, the definitions and assessment methodologies of those concepts for the construction sector have been studied. The methodological approach followed for their analysis has been conducted on a first selection of 42 documents, further reduced to 12 by using clear inclusion criteria to identify the integrated assessment procedures. The main goal of this study is to clarify the correlation between sustainability and resilience concepts for constructions and their integrated assessment, in line with the latest regulations and market needs. The results show that, currently, sustainability and resilience are mainly evaluated in a distinct way to obtain building energy performance certificates, as well as to quantify the building market value and its complementary contribution to the ‘energy efficiency first’ principle and energy-saving targets towards the emergent issue of climate change. Few works focus on the integrated assessment of both concepts considering the construction industries’ point of view about materials and/or systems for buildings. The novelty of this study is the critical review of the current sustainability and resilience integrated assessment methods used for the construction value chain, declined for four main target groups. Researchers, policymakers, industries, and professionals could gain dedicated insights and practical suggestions to put in practice the elements of circular economy, ecological innovation, and cleaner production, which are essential in order to drive the decarbonization of the built environment.

Green Hydrogen Value Chain: Modelling of a PV Power Plant Integrated with H2 Production for Industry Application

Based on the Sustainable Development Goals outlined in the 2030 agenda of the United Nations, affordable and clean energy is one of the most relevant goals to achieve the decarbonization targets and break down the global climate change effects. The use of renewable energy sources, namely, solar energy, is gaining attention and market share due to reductions in investment costs. Nevertheless, it is important to overcome the energy storage problems, mostly in industrial applications. The integration of photovoltaic power plants with hydrogen production and its storage for further conversion to usable electricity are an interesting option from both the technical and economic points of view. The main objective of this study is to analyse the potential for green hydrogen production and storage through PV production, based on technical data and operational considerations. We also present a conceptual model and the configuration of a PV power plant integrated with hydrogen production for industry supply. The proposed power plant configuration identifies different pathways to improve energy use: supply an industrial facility, supply the hydrogen production and storage unit, sell the energy surplus to the electrical grid and provide energy to a backup battery. One of the greatest challenges for the proposed model is the component sizing and water electrolysis process for hydrogen production due to the operational requirements and the technology costs.

Towards suitable practices for the integration of social life cycle assessment into the ecodesign framework of hydrogen-related products

The hydrogen sector is envisaged as one of the key enablers of the energy transition that the European Union is facing to accomplish its decarbonization targets. However, regarding the technologies that enable the deployment of a hydrogen economy, a growing concern exists about potential burden-shifting across sustainability dimensions. In this sense, social life cycle assessment arises as a promising methodology to evaluate the social implications of hydrogen technologies along their supply chains. In the context of the European projects eGHOST and SH2E, this study seeks to advance on key methodological aspects of social life cycle assessment when it comes to guiding the ecodesign of two relevant hydrogen-related products: a 5 kW solid oxide electrolysis cell stack for hydrogen production, and a 48 kW proton-exchange membrane fuel cell stack for mobility applications. Based on the social life cycle assessment results for both case studies under alternative approaches, the definition of a product-specific supply chain, making use of appropriate cut-off criteria, was found to be the preferable choice when addressing system boundaries definition. Moreover, performing calculations according to the activity variable approach was found to provide valuable results in terms of social hotspots identification to support subsequent decision-making processes on ecodesign, while the direct calculation approach is foreseen as a complement to ease the interpretation of social scores. It is concluded that advancements in the formalization of such suitable practices could foster the integration of social metrics into the sustainable-by-design framework of hydrogen-related products.

Modelling flexibility requirements in deep decarbonisation scenarios: The role of conventional flexibility and sector coupling options in the European 2050 energy system

Russia's invasion of Ukraine has reaffirmed the importance of scaling up renewable energy to decarbonise Europe's economy while rapidly reducing its exposure to foreign fossil fuel suppliers. Therefore, the question of sources of flexibility to support a fully decarbonised European energy system is becoming even more critical in light of a renewable-dominated energy system. We developed and used a Pan-European energy system model to systematically assess and quantify sources of flexibility to meet deep decarbonisation targets. The electricity supply sector and electricity-based end-use technologies are crucial in achieving deep decarbonisation. Other low-carbon energy sources like biomethane, hydrogen, synthetic e-fuels, and bioenergy with carbon capture and storage will also play a role. To support a fully decarbonised European energy system by 2050, both temporal and spatial flexibility will be needed. Spatial flexibility, achieved through investments in national electricity networks and cross-border interconnections, is crucial to support the aggressive roll-out of variable renewable energy sources. Cross-border trade in electricity is expected to increase, and in deep decarbonisation scenarios, the electricity transmission capacity will be larger than that of natural gas. Hydrogen storage and green hydrogen production will play a key role in providing traditional inter-seasonal flexibility, and intraday flexibility will be provided by a combination of electrical energy storage, hydrogen-based storage solutions (e.g., liquid H2 and pressurised storage), and hybrid heat pumps. Hydrogen networks and storage will become more critical as we move towards the highest decarbonisation scenario. Still, the need for natural gas networks and storage will decrease substantially.